Impact of grazing exclosure on the physico-chemical and surface characteristics of soil for the restoration of arid steppes in El Bayadh, Algeria

Ahmed Chelali¹, Mohamed Terras¹ and Mohamed Zouidi²

¹ Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment, Department of Agronomy and Nutrition Sciences,Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University Dr. MoulayTahar,20000 Saida, Algeria
zouidibiologie20@gmail.com
² Centre de Recherche en Aménagement du Territoire (CRAT), Campus Zouaghi Slimane, Route de Ain el Bey, 25000 Constantine, Alegria

Abstract

The steppes of arid regions in Algeria are undergoing increasing degradation due to the combined effects of climatic factors, particularly drought and anthropogenic pressures such as overgrazing. This degradation results in a decline in vegetation cover and a gradual deterioration of soil quality. In response, the Algerian government has initiated various restoration measures, including grazing exclusion, which involves the temporary prohibition of access to rangelands. The present study aims to assess the impact of this practice on soil quality in the degraded steppes of the El Bayadh region (southwestern Algeria). Two sites were selected, each comprising an exclosure plot and an adjacent grazed plot (with a protection period of 8 years at the first site and 4 years at the second), in order to compare their physico-chemical properties and surface characteristics of the soil. The results highlight the positive effects of grazing exclusion on soil physico-chemical properties. A significant improvement was observed in soil moisture (up to 8.11%), permeability (up to 42.02 cm/h) and water retention capacity (up to 55.82%) within the exclosed plots. These plots also exhibited higher levels of organic matter and total nitrogen, along with a more balanced C/N ratio (6.76–6.2). At the surface level, a notable increase in vegetation cover and litter accumulation was recorded, while the proportion of coarse elements and sand decreased. These findings confirm the effectiveness of grazing exclusion as a tool for restoring degraded steppe soils and enhancing their long-term sustainability.

Keywords: degradation, ecosystem health, vegetation recovery, land management, arid ecosystems

Introduction

The Algerian steppe zone, covering over twenty million hectares from the southwest to the northeast of the country, plays a fundamental role as a natural ecological barrier against the southward encroachment of the Sahara Desert into the Tellian regions, whose fertility is in decline (Khader et al, 2006). However, this vast expanse is undergoing rapid and intensifying degradation, reflected in a decline in biological potential and a disruption of ecological balances as well as local socio-economic dynamics (Aidoud, 1996; Nedjraoui, 2004, Merdas et al, 2021).

This degradation process results from the interaction of multiple, often synergistic, factors, chief among them a harsh climate characterized by low and irregular rainfall. This unfavorable climatic context is further exacerbated by anthropogenic pressures, notably demographic growth and the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, both of which contribute to soil erosion and the degradation of plant communities (Mainguet, 1990). The cumulative effects of drought and intensive sheep grazing serve as major drivers of steppe soil deterioration, heightening the risk of desertification and undermining the essential ecosystem functions that sustain the resilience of arid environments (Slimani et al, 2010; Allam et al, 2019).

In response to the alarming degradation of steppe ecosystems, the Algerian government has implemented a multifaceted strategy involving various pastoral development programs. These programs aim to address fodder deficits and rehabilitate degraded steppe rangelands through comprehensive restoration efforts. Key interventions include the Green Dam project, land development initiatives, pastoral plantations, dune stabilization, reforestation activities and fruit tree cultivation. Additionally, measures to combat desertification and regulate the use of steppe resources have been enacted, with a focus on creating exclosures and protected zones covering extensive rangeland areas (Amghar et al, 2016; Huguenin et al, 2017; Benaradj et al, 2017; Boucherit et al, 2017).

Soils are formed over time as the climate and vegetation act on the material of the mother rock. Important aspects of soil formation in an arid climate are significant daily changes in temperature which cause the mechanical or physical decomposition of the rocks and the sands transported by wind or water erosions (FAO 1992; Zouidi et al, 2018). Knowledge of soil composition and key physico-chemical properties is thus essential for exploring pedogenetic processes under specific environmental conditions, which in turn supports accurate soil classification and mapping (Drouet, 2010).

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the grazing exclusion technique in improving selected physico-chemical soil parameters and soil surface characteristics in degraded steppe rangelands. The methodological approach is based on a comparative analysis between exclosed and continuously grazed plots at two study stations located in the communes of Stitten and Ain El Orak.

Materials and methods

Study area

El Bayadh province, situated in the southwestern part of Algeria at coordinates 33° 40′ 49 N and 1° 01′ 13 E, encompasses an area of 71,697 km², constituting 3% of the national territory. This region is subdivided into eight administrative districts (daïras), housing twenty-two communes (Figure1). The geographic landscape of El Bayadh comprises three distinct regions: the high steppe plains in the north, the Saharan Atlas and the Saharan platform in the south. The region is characterized by an arid climate, with average minimum temperatures of –1 °C and maximum values reaching 36 °C. Precipitation shows strong interannual irregularity, ranging between 200 and 300 mm. The seasonal regime corresponds to the ASWS type (Autumn, Spring, Winter, Summer) and is marked by a drought period lasting nearly seven months, together with an average frost duration exceeding 45 days (DPSB, 2015)

The soils of the region are generally shallow, low in organic matter and weakly developed. They are classified as isohumic steppe soils and sierozems (Aidoud et al 2006).

Figure 1. Geographical location of El Bayadh Province and the distribution of study stations

Choice of stations

Two experimental stations were selected for this study, each subdivided into two contrasting types of plots (Table 1): a Grazing exclosure plot and an open grazing plot.

1. Stitten station

Located about 40 km northeast of the chief town of El Bayadh Province, this station is positioned at the geographical coordinates 33.8963, 1.2456. It is characterized by an arid climate, with an average annual rainfall of 286.9 mm according to the National Meteorological Office for the period 1995–2022. The vegetation is largely dominated by Stipa tenacissima L. steppe and the soil is classified as Calcic Yermosol. The station comprises two distinct plots:

· Grazing exclosure: Established by the High Commission for Steppe Development (HCDS) in 2000. It has been periodically reopened for controlled grazing, with the last reopening in 2016 (most recent protection period of 8 years).

· Open grazing: Corresponds to a non-managed rangeland, open and devoid of any grazing control.

2. Ain el Orak station

Located about 50 km southwest of the chief town of El Bayadh Province, this station is situated at the geographical coordinates 33.4290, 0.7851. It is also subject to an arid climate, with an average annual rainfall of 215.45 mm for the period 1995–2022. The vegetation cover is dominated by Lygeum spartum steppe and the soil is classified as Calcaric Fluvisol. The station also includes two plots:

· Grazing exclosure: Placed under protection by the High Commission for Steppe Development (HCDS) since 2001. It was reopened to controlled grazing in 2020 (most recent protection period of 4 years).

· Open grazing: Represents an unmanaged rangeland, open and not subject to any specific management.

These two experimental stations were selected for their representativeness of arid rangelands degraded by overgrazing. Each station consists of two adjacent plots (one protected and one open) with similar edaphic and climatic conditions. The site selection was based on two main criteria: the dominance of key steppe indicator species, namely Stipa tenacissima and Lygeum spartum and the contrasting duration of grazing exclusion (8 years for Stitten and 4 years for Ain El Orak). This setup provides an opportunity to evaluate the long-term impact of grazing exclusion.

Soil sampling and physico-chemical analyses

To meet the objectives of this study, a comparative methodological approach was adopted, based on the analysis of soil surveys carried out in both exclosure plots and grazed plots. Observations were conducted during spring 2025 (March–May), a period considered optimal for vegetative development (Manière et al, 1993; Ould Sidi Mohamed et al, 2002).

The selection of sampling locations, inside and outside the exclosures, was made in a reasoned manner to ensure structural, floristic and ecological homogeneity at the scale of each station (Géhu and Rivas-Martínez, 1981).

For each plot, five random soil samples weighing one kilogram each were collected, resulting in a total of 20 samples. Sampling was conducted at a depth of 0 to 20 cm. The composite samples were air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm mesh before undergoing physico-chemical analysis.

Particle size analysis was performed using the Robinson pipette method (Aubert, 1978). Soil permeability was determined by measuring the height of water infiltrated (in centimeters) per unit of time through the soil (Mathieu et al, 1998). Water retention capacity was assessed by weighing a water-saturated sample after 24 hours of decantation at 4°C. Gravimetric water content (% dry mass) was determined by subtracting the weight of an oven-dried soil sample (105°C, 24 hours) from the weight of the fresh sample.

Organic matter content was measured by the loss in weight of a dry sample during calcination at 550°C for 16 hours. Total organic carbon was determined using the cold oxidation method, involving an excess of potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid, following Anne’s protocol as described by Aubert (1978). Total nitrogen was measured using the Kjeldahl method. Soil pH and electrical conductivity were measured in boiled distilled water, using a fine soil suspension at a 1:2.5 ratio. Measurements were taken with an electrometric method using a glass electrode (pH meter HI2210; conductivity meter HI2300).

Soil surface components

The percentage cover of different soil surface components was assessed using the point quadrat method (Daget and Poissonnet, 1971). A 10-meter transect line was randomly installed and a needle was lowered every 10 cm to record 100 contact points. Contacts between the needle tip and various surface elements (litter, bare silty crust, surface sand, Coarse elements and bare soil)were recorded.

Vegetation cover rate (VC) was then calculated based on species presence or absence using the formula:

VC (%) = (n / N) × 100

where n is the number of points where vegetation is present and N is the total number of points (100).

Statistical analysis

To compare physico-chemical parameters and soil surface conditions between protected plots and grazed plots across the two study stations, means and standard deviations were calculated for each variable. Subsequently, Student’s t-test was applied using SPSS software (version 25).

Results and discussion

Effect of grazing exclusion on soil physical properties

The particle size analysis of soils in the study area revealed a loamy-sandy texture. According to Yerou H. et al (2022), this type of texture renders the soil particularly vulnerable to wind erosion. The results presented in Table 1 show that soil moisture was significantly higher in the protected plots (8.11% and 7.98%) compared to the grazed areas (4.44% and 3.9%), with highly significant differences (p = 0.001). These findings confirm the detrimental effects of grazing on the soil’s water retention capacity, as reported by several previous studies (Belsky, 1992; Brown and Al Mazrooei, 2003; Jeddi and Chaieb, 2010). Grazing exclusion promotes the accumulation of litter and greater vegetation cover, both of which are crucial for reducing soil evaporation and conserving moisture (Suding and Goldberg, 1999; Geddes and Dunkerle, 1999; Violle et al, 2006).

Soil permeability was also markedly higher in protected areas (42.02 cm/h and 39.88 cm/h) compared to grazed plots (35.84 cm/h and 31.68 cm/h), with statistically significant differences at both stations (p< 0.009 and p = 0.001). This improvement highlights the positive effect of grazing exclusion on soil structure. In contrast, intensive grazing represents a major anthropogenic pressure that, according to Nedjraoui (2011), degrades soils, reduces their permeability and increases their susceptibility to erosion, particularly by wind. This accounts for the lower permeability observed in grazed areas.

Grazing exclusion led to a marked improvement in water retention capacity, reaching 55.82% and 50.4% in the studied stations, compared to only 40.57% and 36.77% in the grazed zones. These differences were highly significant (p< 0.001). These findings are consistent with those of Roose et al (2000), who demonstrated that grazing exclusion in the Beni Chougrane Mountains (Algeria) enhanced soil structure, increased water retention capacity and significantly reduced water erosion. The regeneration of plant cover under protection improves water infiltration and aggregate stability. Furthermore, Zouidi et al (2019) also attribute the moderately low humidity to high evaporation, evapotranspiration and irregular precipitation.

Effect of grazing exclusion on soil chemical properties

Chemical analysis results (Table 1) indicate that soil pH remained generally neutral across all plots, with no significant differences between protected and grazed areas at either station (p = 0.338 and p = 0.103). This pH stability is characteristic of steppe soils and suggests that grazing exclusion has no notable effect on soil acidity or alkalinity.

Organic matter plays a fundamental role in soil fertility and ecosystem functioning (Georges, 2007). Protected plots showed higher organic matter content (1.66% and 1.44%) than grazed areas (0.73% and 0.86%), with statistically significant differences (p = 0.008 and p = 0.009). Although these values fall within the category of soils that are poor to moderately rich in organic matter, they are consistent with trends observed in other studies conducted in the southwestern Algerian steppe (Latreche, 2004; Abdelmoumen and Zoheir, 2015). This improvement appears closely linked to the presence of plant species such as Stipa tenacissima and Lygeum spartum, which aid in trapping fine particles rich in organic material and in conserving soil moisture. These conditions foster microbial activity and litter decomposition (Aciego and Brookes, 2008; Prieto et al, 2011).

Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient in arid ecosystems and its depletion—as well as a reduction in soil enzymes like protease—can slow plant growth (Mazzarino et al 1996–1998). Grazing exclusion led to a significant increase in nitrogen content (0.18 g/kg and 0.17 g/kg) compared to grazed areas (0.08 g/kg and 0.11 g/kg), with strong statistical significance (p = 0.000 and p=0.001). According to Hai et al (2007) and Mikola et al (2001), protected environments accumulate more plant litter than grazed ones. The cessation of grazing enhances the amount of organic input to the soil, thereby improving its carbon and nitrogen content.

C/N ratios were considerably higher in protected areas (6.76 and 6.2) than in grazed plots (4.96 and 3.92). These results are in line with observations by Amghar (2012), who attributed the low C/N ratios in overgrazed zones to reduced organic matter content and its rapid mineralization. Karabi (2016) also noted that sandy soils, due to their high porosity, accelerate the decomposition of organic matter. Grazing exclusion thus promotes better organic carbon stability and enriches the soil with long-lasting nutrients.

Electrical conductivity was slightly higher in grazed plots (0.6 and 0.65 ds/m) than in protected ones (0.52 and 0.58 ds/m), with a significant difference observed at only one station (Station 1; p = 0.017). According to Aubert’s (1978) scale, soils with electrical conductivity above 0.6 dS/m are considered saline. This salinity may be due to vegetation degradation, which facilitates salt accumulation (Yüksek and Yüksek, 2011).

Effects of grazing exclusion on the soil surface elements

The analysis of soil surface elements (Table 3, Figure 2) indicates that grazing exclusion significantly enhances vegetation cover, litter accumulation and crust formation, in contrast to open grazing areas where bare soil and coarse elements predominate . Vegetation cover reaches 40.2% and 34.2% in exclosed plots compared to 21.2% and 17.6% in grazed plots, with a highly significant difference (p = 0.000) at both sites. These findings are consistent with those reported by Wu et al (2010) and Amghar et al (2012). The increase in vegetation cover is attributed to improved edaphic conditions in exclosure areas (Yates et al, 2000). Indeed, enhanced moisture retention, moderated soil temperature and more efficient nutrient cycling promote the regeneration of herbaceous species. Conversely, overgrazing degrades soil quality and reduces plant biomass (Enne et al, 2004), disrupting biogeochemical cycles and deteriorating the soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties (Dormaar et al, 1994; Chaneton and Lavado, 1996).

Bare soil is significantly more prevalent in grazed areas (37.2% and 40.4%) compared to exclosed plots (30.2% and 33.2%), with a highly significant difference ( p = 0.007). This trend aligns with the observations of Schlecht et al (2009) and is explained by intensive livestock trampling (Yong-Zhong et al, 2005), which facilitates wind erosion. Additionally, the proportion of surface sand—a key erosion indicator—is markedly lower in exclosed sites (5.2% and 6.2%) than in grazed areas (25.4% and 27.8%). The degradation of vegetation cover due to overgrazing increases soil exposure to wind, enhancing sand mobility (Floret and Pontanier, 1982). These results highlight the effectiveness of grazing exclusion in mitigating soil erosion.

Figure 2. Comparison of soil surface elements between grazing exclosure and open grazing plots at two Study stations

Litter accumulation is higher in exclosed plots (8.6% and 7.8%) compared to grazed areas (5.2% and 3.2%), with a statistically significant difference at site 2 (p = 0.021) and a marginal difference at site 1 (p= 0.068). This accumulation is likely due to the mortality of perennial plants and the trapping of plant debris by tufted vegetation. In contrast, in grazed areas, litter is often consumed or dispersed by wind. Nevertheless, litter plays a critical role in protecting against desertification (Bourahla and Guittonneau, 1978). Surface crusts are significantly more frequent in exclosed zones (11.2% and 12.4%) than in grazed zones (1.2% and 0.8%). Although crusts can hinder seed germination, their absence in grazed areas may be partially compensated by animal trampling, which can improve soil structure (Valentin, 1983; Savory and Parsons, 1980). Finally, the proportion of coarse elements is significantly reduced in exclosed plots (4.6% and 6.2%) compared to grazed plots (9.8% and 10.2%), reflecting lower erosion due to reduced overgrazing and trampling (Amghar, 2012).

Conclusion

This study assessed the impact of grazing exclusion on the physico-chemical properties and surface characteristics of degraded arid steppe rangelands. The results demonstrate a substantial increase in soil moisture within exclosed plots compared to grazed ones, along with enhanced permeability. Soil water retention capacity also showed notable improvement. Chemically, organic matter and total nitrogen contents were significantly higher under grazing exclusion and a more balanced carbon-to-nitrogen ratio suggests greater organic matter stability. At the surface level, vegetation cover and litter accumulation increased considerably, while bare soil, coarse elements and surface sand content decreased. These positive developments confirm the relevance of grazing exclusion as an effective strategy for combating erosion and desertification and as a key lever for rehabilitating steppe ecosystems. However, achieving the intended objectives requires rational management, including enhanced rangeland monitoring, active involvement of local populations, particularly herders, adherence to grazing and exclusion periods and strict compliance with the land’s carrying capacity.

It is essential to consider extending the protection technique to all degraded rangelands in order to maximize both ecological and pastoral benefits. Complementary measures, such as the establishment of forage plantations, remain indispensable for the rehabilitation of severely degraded areas. Finally, future research should be expanded to include additional indicators, such as pastoral value and productivity, grazing pressure, carrying capacity classes and biomass production, in order to deepen the understanding of rangeland transformations under grazing exclusion and their implications for livestock systems.

Acknowledgements

The authors declare no conflict of interest related to the design, execution, or publication of this study.

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