Level and seasonal variation of quality parameters in livestock water for selected areas of Marsabit County, northern Kenya

H Dabasso Bulle, M Mamo, P Geikuku, I Tura*, A Adongo, A Kagunyu, M Ngutu, J Mwangi, S Amboga**, S Kuria and J Mwai***

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 147 Marsabit
bulledabasso@yahoo.com
* Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box Garissa
** Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box Embu
*** Water Resource Management Authority, P.O. Box Marsabit

Abstract

Water with required levels of physical and chemical quality parameter is important for livestock production. An unsafe level of quality parameters have however reported in water sources of northern Kenya and has been associated with livestock poisoning. The situation had led to massive deaths of livestock. Previous efforts to evaluate the water quality parameters have since generated varied opinions which can be attributed to lack temporal and spatial consideration. We evaluated physical and chemical quality parameters of livestock in dry and wet season from different types of water source. We purposively selected areas with reported cases of poor water quality in Marsabit County and randomly sampled water sources for laboratory analysis. Independent sample T- test was used to evaluate variation of parameters from maximum acceptable limit while One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate their seasonal variations. Most parameters considered were found within the acceptable levels for livestock use except for conductivity, nitrates, and copper. Unsafe levels of conductivity were observed during both dry and wet seasons and that of nitrates observed only during dry season in all types of water source.

The levels of copper concentration were high only in Well water during wet season. High nitrates level was attributed to faecal wastes collection into water sources while geological characteristics of the study areas might have contributed to high level of conductivity and copper in water. Protection of water sources and livestock watering at reasonable distance from the source are recommended as strategy to reduce high nitrates levels. Geological study of the area is also recommended before development of water source to avoid areas with rocks/soils that contain mineral metal elements such as copper. This study further recommends for consideration of season and type of water sources for comprehensive evaluation of water quality situation.  

Key words: chemical parameters, Gabra, physical parameters, Rendille, water source

Introduction

Level of physical and chemical quality parameters of water mainly in terms of pH, salinity, nitrates, and concentration levels of metal elements (e.g Zinc, Aluminium, Lead, Copper and Boron) largely determine quality of livestock water. Although most of these quality parameters also provide nutritional benefits to livestock within the required range, above or below the required concentrations are normally considered toxic to livestock and other organisms (Fatoki et al 2002). Because of high sedimentation, eutrophication and concentration of impurities associated with high evaporation particularly in arid areas, level of physical and chemical parameters of water may vary from acceptable levels and pose challenges to livestock production. In Mexico 57% of cattle herd deaths was reported due to high levels of nitrates associated with eutrophication (Kvansnicka et al 2005). In New Zealand and Australia high concentration of Cadmium in livestock water affected meat quality and thus compromised country export (Bolan et al 2003). 

In northern Kenya several animals have died due to consumption of water perceived to have unsuitable levels of physical and chemical parameters. For example in Kargi area of Marsabit county, massive deaths of livestock were noted during the year 2000 when over 1,000 animals died soon after consuming poor quality water from an old well (Shivoga and Coppock 2003).  Efforts to understand water quality status from the same areas have since generated varied opinions.  Mbaria et al (2005) indicated toxic levels of Nitrates, Arsenic and Lead in the waters of Kargi areas and considered it as unsuitable for livestock use. Similar observation was made by Global Concern. Inc. (2007). Contrarily, laboratory analysis of water samples by Diocese of Marsabit did not find high levels of nitrates, Arsenic and lead but indicated high concentration of mineral salts such as Chloride, Sodium, sulphate and Magnesium. The variation in findings can be attributed to temporal and spatial implication in water quality parameters which was not considered in either of the aforementioned studies. Spatial difference can be associated with depth and non-homogeneity of soils and rocks associated with distinct geological units of Marsabit district and other parts of northern Kenya (Ndombi 1983).  Discrete dry and wet season also creates temporal variation of water quality as results of sediments loading by rains water and high evaporation particularly during dry seasons. Consideration of both spatial and temporal implications is hence vital to be able depict true status of water quality.  

In this study we investigated the various physical and chemical quality parameters of livestock water during both dry and wet seasons from different type of water sources in Kargi, Korr and Maikona areas of Marsabit District in order to establish quality status for drawing up possible recommendations.  

 Materials and Methods

 Study sites

The study was conducted in Kargi, Korr, and Maikona areas of the Marsabit County, northern Kenya. Kargi and Korr are located in south western part of Marsabit County while Maikona is located in northern part of the County. The areas are semi-desert, receiving annual rainfall of less than 200mm with frequent drought occurrences and mean monthly temperatures of 27^oc -29^oc (Kuria et al 2005). Rainfall follows a bimodal pattern where long rains are received in March-April and short rains in October-December. Vegetation in the areas is mainly dwarf shrubs interspersed with trees or annual grasses and used for communal grazing. Soils are either volcanic or metamorphic in nature. For instance, soils in Kargi area are volcanic while those in Korr area are metamorphic (Kuria et al 2004). Kargi and Korr are predominately inhabited by Rendille community whilst Maikona area by Gabra community. The two communities are largely pastoralists and keep livestock species comprising of camels, goats, sheep and cattle. The mean livestock holding at household level is 38 Tropical livestock Unit (TLU) as per the year 2005 and 2006 for areas such as Kargi and Korr (Roba and Oba 2009). Livestock keeping is however faced with a myriad of challenges, among them is the unavailability of clean and safe livestock water in addition to frequent droughts, insecurity, poor marketing infrastructures, overgrazing and shrinking of grazing range. Safe and clean water for livestock is always perceived to be priority problem for Rendille pastoralists of Kargi and Korr areas (Shivoga and Coppock 2003) and possibly so for the Gabra community of Maikona area. The economic implication of unsafe water for livestock production is usually enormous. Shivoga and Coppock (2003) gave an example of livestock loss due to poor water quality. They observed over 1,000 animal deaths soon after consuming water from a borehole in Kargi area in the year 2000.  

Water sampling and laboratory analyses

Main livestock water sources in the areas were listed with help of local people (water committee) and sample sources randomly selected. Source of the sampled water was marked with GPS for future reference. Visual inspection of site was done so as to note the potential contaminants around the water source. Underground water was pumped along the supply line and sufficient time given to flush out water in the pipes before sampling while direct sampling was done for surface water.   Deliberate mixing done for stagnate water.  Samples were collected in 1-litre plastic containers. The containers were rinsed twice with water to be sampled prior to sampling. Sample containers were filled to the brim leaving little or no air space and seal tightly with the cap. Sample containers were then labelled with name of water source, location, type of water source, season of sampling and date. Labelled sample containers were taken to laboratory for analysis of pH, Alkalinity, Conductivity, Nitrate, Nitrite, Arsenic, Copper, Chromium, Lead, Aluminium, Zinc, Boron, Sulphate and Fluoride. The selected mineral elements for analysis were perceived to be high based on earlier studies, e.g Mbaria et al 2005, Shivoga and Coppock 2003, and likely to cause livestock health problem due to their high concentrations. Analyses methods were adapted from standard methods for examination of water and wastewater ((USEPA 2005). The following are specific analytical methods adapted for each mineral element;

• Buret titration method for Alkalinity determination

• Electrode method for pH determination

• Direct use of conductivity meter for Conductivity determination

• Direct measurement of ISE method for Nitrate determination

• Diazotization method for Nitrite determination

• Silver diethyldithiocarbamate method for Arsenic determination  

• Porphyrin method for copper determination

• Diphenylcarbohydrazide method for Chromium determination

• Fast Column Extraction method for Lead determination  

• Aluminon method for aluminium determination  

• Zincon method for Zinc determination  

• Carmine method for Boron determination  

• SulfaVer 4 method for Sulphate determination  

• SPADNS method for Fluoride determination  

Data analysis

Independent sample T- test was used to evaluate variation of physical and chemical parameters in sampled water from maximum acceptable limit while One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate their seasonal variations (Minitab statistical package version 14).  Maximum acceptable limit of quality parameters were based on FAO livestock water quality guidelines according to Ayers and Westcot (1994). All tests of significance were accepted at P<0.05.   

Results and Discussion

 pH

The suitable pH range for all categories of livestock is 5 to 9 (Higgins et al 2008). Both the Well and Borehole water had significantly low levels of PH compared to maximum acceptable level with no variation with season (Table 1 and 2). This is contrary to the findings of Coppock and Shivoga (2003) where they found high pH levels in most water sources in the study areas.   

Salinity (conductivity)

Salinity was measured by level of electrical conductivity which was found not significantly lower than the acceptable level for livestock use in Well as well as Borehole water during both dry and wet season (Table 1 and 2). High conductivity indicated high concentration salts which may pose livestock health problem such as diarrhoea, reduced feed intake & reduced growth rate (Higgins et al 2008). The most common salts likely to be present in such water include, chlorides, phosphate, Sodium, Chloride, Calcium and Magnesium among others (Bagley 1997). The high concentrations of such salts have also been noted in laboratory analysis result by Diocese of Marsabit. Strategies to reduce livestock health problem arising out consuming water with high salts levels need to be sought. The strategies may include grazing animals on high moisture content and low salt level forages (Faries et al 1998). Study to understand salinity levels of common forages in the study sites is vital to evaluate accumulated level of salts consumed by animals and also recommend forage based salts reduction strategy.  

Nitrates and nitrites

The concentrations of nitrates during dry season for both Well and Borehole waters were not significantly lower than maximum acceptable level while Nitrite concentrations were significantly lower in both Well and Borehole water for all seasons (Table 1 and 2). High nitrate concentrations have also been reported by other studies (Global Concern Inc 2007, Mbaria et al 2005). Such concentration of nitrate in water is usually associated with livestock poisoning since nitrate can easily converted into nitrite which are absorbed into blood stream and react with haemoglobin to form methamoglobin, a product that cannot be transported by blood and causes suffocation. Nitrate accumulation occurs when run-off water collects faecal wastes into water source (Vough et al 2009). Relatively high nitrates concentration during dry season as shown by this study (Table 3) possibly rise out of more use of the water sources during such period by livestock and hence accumulate faecal wastes. Lack of water source protection and livestock watering at close proximity might have led to high nitrate concentration in water. A related challenge to nitrates accumulation is growth of algae-blue particularly in open water such as Wells. Further study to ascertain the level of algae-blue in such water may therefore important. 

Heavy metals concentration (Arsenic, Copper, Chromium, lead, Aluminium, and Zinc)

Concentrations of Arsenic, Lead, Chromium, Zinc and Aluminium in both Well and Borehole water are significantly lower than acceptable concentration limit during dry and wet seasons. Only concentration of Copper did not indicate significantly lower concentration than acceptable limit in Well water during wet season (Table 1). Other metals such as Chromium and Zinc also showed relatively higher concentration during wet season in both Well and Borehole but significant lower than acceptable limit. The significantly lower concentrations of most heavy metals compared to acceptable limit as found in study did not conform to other findings (Global Concern Inc 2007, Mbaria et al 2005). Since most of the heavy metals such as Copper, Zinc and Chromium are naturally found in igneous and sedimentary rocks (Zhenli et al 2003), the level of weathering process at time of sampling might have influenced variations in findings. The availability of copper containing rocks and their weathering particularly during wet season also explains high copper concentration in wet season. Although methods such as chemical precipitation, electrolytic extraction, reverse osmosis , evaporation and ion exchanges  exists and are used to remove heavy metals such as copper from water their however expensive involving high price equipment and energy (Hanzlik et al 2004). Cheaper and innovative method need to be sough to reduce copper levels in livestock of the study areas.  

Concentration of other toxic mineral elements (Boron, Suphate and Fluoride)

Boron, Sulphate and Fluoride are also toxic at high concentration levels and causes animal health problem such as slow growth, inflammation, oedema of legs, diarrhoea, loss of enamel and fertility loss (Higgins et al 2008). Their high concentrations in livestock water are however not found in this study. The concentrations Boron, Sulphate and Fluoride were significantly lower than maximum acceptable level during both dry and wet season in Well and Borehole water and did not vary with season except Boron which showed relatively lower concentration during wet season compared to dry season.   Relatively lower concentration of Boron during wet season can be attributed to dilution of Boron containing rock or salts as results of increase water availability during wet season.   

Conclusion and Recommendation

• This study established levels of physical and chemical quality parameters of livestock water for different water sources in selected areas of northern Kenya and their variations with seasons. The quality parameters considered were found within the acceptable levels for livestock use except for conductivity, nitrates, and copper. Apart from conductivity which showed unsafe levels during both dry and wet season and in all types of water source, the other quality parameters such as nitrates and copper varied with season and type of water sources. Unsafe level of nitrates was only observed during dry season in all types of water source while that of copper observed during wet season in Well water. High levels of nitrates were attributed to faecal accumulation into water while that of copper and salts levels (conductivity) can be attributed to geological characteristics and weathering of rocks/soils especially during wet season. This study recommends for livestock grazing on less salt containing forages as strategy for reducing level of salt accumulation in livestock and fencing of water sources to reduce accumulation of faecal wastes into the water source as strategy for nitrates reduction. Water troughs need to be located at reasonable distance from fenced source to avoid nitrate leaching. The geological characteristics need to be understood also before development of water source to avoid rocks or soils that have high levels of undesirable mineral elements. The study further recommends for consideration of season and type of water sources for comprehensive evaluation of water quality in areas with heterogeneous geological characteristics.  

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to acknowledge Director of KARI, KARI Marsabit Centre Director and grant support by Government of Kenya (GoK) and European Union (EU) under Kenya Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (KASAL) Research Program 

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Received 15 March 2012; Accepted 16 April 2012; Published 7 May 2012

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