Effect of composite cassava meal with or without palm oil and/or methionine supplementation on broiler performance

S N Ukachukwu

Department of Animal Nutrition and Forage Science, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike,
P M B 7267, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
snukachukwu@yahoo.com

Abstract

Two experiments were carried out to investigate the response of broiler chicks to substitution of composite cassava meal (CCM) for maize in broiler diets as well as to assess the impact of supplementing CCM-based diet with palm oil and/or methionine on performance of starter broiler chicks. In experiment 1 six diets in which CCM replaced maize at 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% and designated T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6, respectively were fed to 144 day-old broiler chicks in a completely randomized design (CRD) experiment. In experiment 2, five diets designated D1 (control, without CCM), D2 (maize-CCM type diet), D3 (maize-CCM type diet with methionine supplementation), D4 (maize-CCM type diet with palm oil supplementation), and D5 (maize-CCM type diet with palm oil and methionine supplementation) were fed to 150 day-old broiler birds in a CRD experiment.

At end of experiment 1 (day 56), daily feed intakes (DFI) of birds in T1, T2, T3, and T4 were similar (P>0.05), but significantly lower (P<0.05) than the DFI of birds fed diet T6. Birds fed diets T1, T2, T3, and T4 had similar (P>0.05) final live weight, daily weight gain (DWG), feed conversion (FCR), and protein efficiency ratio (PER), which were significantly better (P<0.05) than the final live weight, DWG, FCR, and PER of birds fed diet T6. Generally, there was increasing intake as the CCM inclusion level increased, while the response parameters showed a general trend of decreasing performance as the inclusion level of CCM increased. On economics of production of finished broilers, the cost/Kg feed, on relative basis using the control diet (T1) as baseline, ranged from 100% to 79.62% for T1-T6 respectively. Feeding of diets T4 and T5 yielded the highest (P<0.05) gross margin (GM) values that were however similar to the GM values of birds fed diets T2 and T3 but higher (P<0.05) than the GM value of birds fed diet T1, while the GM of birds fed dietT6 was the lowest (P<0.05). 

In experiment 2, there were significant (P<0.05) differences among treatment means of all the parameters. Birds fed D4 and D5 diets had significantly higher (P<0.05) body weight (BWt) and daily weight gain (DWG) than birds fed D2 but were similar to those fed D1 (control) and D3.The feed conversion ratios (FCR) and protein efficiency ratios (PER) of D5, D4 and D1 were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those of D2 but similar to those of D3.

Keyword: alternative feedstuff, broiler nutrition, energy supplementation , feed additives, growth response

Introduction

Meat is highly valued food for human consumption. Its nutrition involves a science and art of selective eating with a view to providing the body with essential nutrients for its various activities (Esonu 2000).

Unfortunately, meat production requires large quantities of material and time. If the FAO (1992) standard for animal protein intake for proper human nutrition and growth is to be met, especially in Nigeria, it therefore means that production should be geared towards those meat sources with higher food value, having short duration of production and with higher consumer preferences, as well as nutrient quality, e.g. poultry (Madubuike and Ekenyem 2001). Broiler, a type of poultry, has the ability to grow fast and reach market weight fater than ruminants (Madubuike and Ekenyem 2001). Achievement of this in the poultry sector directly depends on the availability and supply of feedstuffs to meet the energy requirement of the animals for their optimum production. The only available basal energy feedstuff (maize) is in constant demand for man and animal nutrition and for industrial processing (Montilla 1976, Esonu 2000).

These days the use of maize for intensive animal production compared to its cost is no longer justifiable especially for intensive broiler production. Thus, there is an increasing cost of feedstuff for animal nutrition (Fajimi et al 1993, Tewe et al 2002). This cost constitutes about 80% of the total cost of intensive production in the livestock industry (Esonu 2000, Tewe et al 2002).

Hence today, the focus in the livestock industry (involving intensive production) is on alternative feedstuff; mostly those which can either substitute directly for maize or can be included at certain level to attain a comparable quality with the convectional maize, but must not be deleterious to the animal’s health (Muller et al 1974).

Cassava is a root crop planted mostly for its root for human consumption and as industrial raw material (e.g. starch). Cassava appears to be the best possibility for overcoming these chronic high feed cost in the livestock industry. Its cultivation requires no special expertise that applies to cereal production (e.g. maize, wheat, e.t.c.) and, with minimal input it yields about 10.83t/ha annually. Currently, Nigeria is the largest world producer (FAO 2002).

The roots of cassava are usually processed by peeling, followed by grinding and compressing to remove water and reduce its cyanide (HCN) content (Montaldo 1973). It contains an energy value of about 3.65 Kcal/g ME comparable to that of maize (3.66 Kcal/g ME). The foliage (leaves + tender stems) is a good source of dietary ash and vitamins (Montilla 1976, Akinfala 2000). The main stem, about 1-4m long is usually meant for propagation (Rogers 1965). These stems have been found also to be a source of dietary fibre (Akinfala et al 2003). Ukachukwu (2005) has evaluated the nutritional value of composite cassava meal (a mixture of whole root: discarded stems: leaves::5 : 2 : 2) and adjudged it a potential feedstuff in poultry and livestock diets.

This study was therefore aimed at determining the performance (growth and economics aspects) of broilers fed graded level of composite cassava meal (CCM), as well as assessing the effect of supplementing CCM-based diet with methionine and/or palm oil on the growth performance of starter broilers.

Materials and methods

Cassava roots, leaves and stems harvested from mature cassava plants grown at Ikot Ekepene, Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, were prepared in accordance with the recommendation of Ukachukwu (2005). This involved sun-drying the leaves and discarded stems on a concrete floor until the leaves were crispy and the stem could be easily broken without bending. They were later milled. The unpeeled cassava roots were washed with water, chipped, bagged and pressed for 24hrs, then sun-dried on a concrete floor. After drying they were also milled. The cassava root floor was mixed with the leave meal and the stem meat at the ration of 5:2:2. The mixture was termed composite cassava meal (CCM).

Experiment 1

Tables 1 and 2 show the six formulated diets in which the CCM replaced maize at six levels of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100%. The diets were roughly iso-nitrogenous.

This study was carried out in the Livestock Farm of Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State in Nigeria. A total of 144 day-old “Anak” broilers with an average weight of 37.5 g were used in a completely randomized design experiment. They were randomly allocated to the six diets at 24 birds per treatment and each treatment was replicated into three. There were 8 birds per replicate and the birds were raised under deep litter system.

The experiment lasted 4 weeks (28days) in the starter phase and 4 weeks (28days) in the finisher phase. Heat sources for brooding were kerosene stoves, kerosene lanterns and electric bulbs. Feeds were given daily and leftover feeds were recorded daily. From these, daily intakes were calculated by subtracting the leftover from the quantity given. Birds were weighed on the first day of the experiment and subsequently seven daily. Feed and water were given ad libitum.

Experiment 2

Five broiler starter diets were formulated to incorporate CCM in partial replacement of maize (Table 3).

The diets were supplemented with methionine and/or palm oil. The five diets were designated D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5. D1 was the control and had neither CCM nor methionine or palm oil supplementation. Others had CCM substituted for maize at 60%. D2 was not supplemented with methionine or palm oil, D3 had methionine supplementation only and D4 had palm oil supplementation only, while D5 had both methionine and palm oil supplementation.

A total of 150 seven days-old broiler chicks were used. They were randomly allocated to the five dietary treatments at 30 birds per treatment, and each treatment was replicated into three at 10 birds per replicate. The birds were raised in a deep litter system for four weeks, with the first 7 days serving as preliminary period during which the birds were fed a common proprietary feed. Thereafter the birds were randomly distributed to the five treatments. Heat sources for brooding were kerosene stoves, lanterns and electric bulbs. Vaccinations and other medications were administered to the birds. The birds were weighed initially and subsequently every 7 days. Feed and water were given ad libitum. Feeds were given in the morning and leftover feed weighed and recorded the following morning. Feed intake was calculated by subtracting leftovers value from quantity given.

Data collected in experiments 1 and 2 were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) in completely randomized design (CRD) and the means were separated using Duncan’s multiple test (Duncan 1955, Steel and Torrie 1980, Obi 1986).

Results and discussion

Experiment 1

At day 28 (Starter phase)

Table 4 shows the effect of replacing composite cassava meal (CCM) for maize in starter broiler chicks’ mash. There were no significant (P>0.05) differences among treatment means of the initial live weight and average daily feed intake of the birds. However, intake tended to increase numerically as the inclusion level of CCM increased.

The final live weight of birds across the six treatments showed significant (P<0.05) differences. Birds on T1-T4 (0%, 20%, 40% and 60%) had similar (P<0.05) final live weight that was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the live weights of birds on T5 and T6 (80% and 100% CCM substitutions for maize). Body weights of the T5 and T6 birds were also similar (P>0.05). The daily weight gain (DWG) followed the same trend as the final live weight, with birds on T5 and T6 having similar values that were however, significantly (P<0.05) lower than those of birds on T1-T4. The DWG of T1-T4 were also similar to each other, but significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of T5 while those of T6 birds were the lowest (P<0.05).

The depression of final live weight and daily weight gain at 80% and 100% substitution of CCM for maize suggests poor utilization of diets with CCM replacing maize at level above 60% inclusion level. The poor utilization of these diets could have been occasioned by high fibre content and possible high load of hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is the major toxicant/inhibitor in cassava. Also, the low energy level of diets with 80% and 100% substitution of CCM for maize could have contributed to the poor utilization of the diets. The 60% substitution translates to 35% inclusion of CCM in the diets. This suggests that the optimum inclusion level of CCM in starter broiler diets is 35%. This high level of inclusion may have been made possible by the improvement of the protein level and amino acid profile of the CCM due to incorporation of cassava leaves. This agrees with the reports of Enriquez and Ross (1967) who suggested incorporation of the leaves and methionine as means of overcoming the adverse effect of HCN in cassava roots. Also, Akinfala et al (2003) and Ukachukwu (2005) suggested that the incorporation of dried cassava foliage (leaves and tender stem) could enhance the metabolism and utilization of cassava roots.

Birds on treatment diets T1, T2, T3 and T4 had similar feed conversion ratios  (FCR) and protein efficiency ratios (PER) that were significantly (P<0.05) better than those of birds on treatment diets T5 and T6. The higher crude fibre level could have prevented proper utilization of the diets 5 and 6. The poorer utilization of T5 and T6 diets (as indicated by the poorer FCR and PER of T5 and T6 birds) could be attributed to the possible presence of greater quantities of anti-nutritional factors (especially the HCN normally associated with cassava crop) as the level of inclusion of CCM increased. No wonder then that T5 and T6 diets whose intakes (46.69g and 46.87g, respectively) were numerically higher could not be utilized adequately and be converted to flesh as can be observed in the final live weight (529 and 542g) and daily weight gain (17.55g and 18.02g) of birds fed the T6 and T5 respectively.

The issue of T5 and T6 diets containing greater quantities of HCN can be substantiated by the higher (P<0.05) mortality percentages recorded in T5 and T6 than in T1, T2, T3 and T4.

Table 5 shows the economics of production using CCM as a replacement for maize. Cost per kilogram of each diet was N50.50, N47.82, N45.14, N42.47, N39.79 and N37.11 for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 respectively.

On relative basis using the control diet T1 as baseline, the cost ranged from 100% to 73.49% for T1-T6 respectively. This shows that the production cost per kilogram diet decreased as inclusion of CCM increased. This must have resulted from the fact that the cost of a unit of CCM is lower than the cost of a unit of maize, which the CCM replaced. The cost of the discarded stems and leaves incorporated in CCM was minimal deriving only from the cost of processing them (Ukachukwu 2005).

Cost per unit weight gain of the birds that fed on the diet shows no significant (P>0.05) differences. However, the gross margin showed significant (P<0.05) differences among the treatment means. T1-T4 had similar gross margins, which were better than those of T5 and T6. This confirms the superiority of T1-T4 over T5 and T6.

At day 56 (End of Finisher phase)

The performance of the birds at end of experiment (day 56) is shown in Table 6. There were significant (P<0.05) effects of dietary treatment on daily feed intake, final live weight, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) of birds fed the experimental diets. 

Daily feed intake of birds fed diet T6 was the highest followed by the intake of birds fed diet T5. The intake of birds fed diet T5 was however similar to intakes of birds fed diets T3 and T4 but higher than those of birds fed diets T1 and T2. Also, feed intakes of birds fed diets T1, T2, T3 and T4 were not significantly (P>0.05) different. Generally, there was increasing intake as the CCM inclusion level increased. The final live weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR), and protein efficiency ratio (PER) had similar pattern. They showed a general trend of decreasing performance as the inclusion level of CCM increased. Diets T5 and T6 depressed (P>0.05) the final live weights and weight gains of birds than diets T1 – T4. Birds fed diet T6 had the poorest (P>0.05) FCR, followed by those fed diet T5 whose FCR value was similar to the FCR values of birds fed diets T3 and T4. Those fed diets T1 and T2 had the best FCR values that were however similar (P>0.05) to the FCR values of birds fed diets T3 and T4. PER of birds fed T6 was the poorest (P<0.05), followed by PER of birds fed diet T5, while the PERs of birds fed diets T1 – T4 were similar and the highest (P<0.05). However, PERs of T4 and T5 were similar (P>0.05).

The higher feed intakes of broilers fed diets T5 and T6 containing high levels of CCM could be attributed to the higher crude fibre content and lower energy levels of the diets occasioned by the incorporation of CCM that contains high fibre. The birds therefore ate to satisfy their energy requirement. Despite the higher feed intake of these broilers, they had significant (P<0.05) lower final live weight, daily weight gain, protein efficiency ratio (PER) and higher feed conversion ratio (FCR) than the broilers fed diets T1 – T4. This poor performance of birds fed 80 and 100% CCM diets could also be attributed to possible higher levels of cyanide in the two diets. High levels of fibre and cyanide adversely affect digestibility and utilization of nutrients by broilers (Esonu and Udedibie 1993). Hence, the observed poor FCR, PER and weight gain manifested generally in poorer market weight on finishing. FCR and PER are indices of nutrient utilization.

The results obtained correspond with the report of Igwebuike and Okonkwo (1993), who recommended inclusion level of up to 35% cassava peel-leaf meal in poultry rations. Also, our report above indicated that the incorporation of CCM up to 60% in broiler starter rations produced no adverse effect.

Overall effect of using composite cassava meal (CCM) as a replacement for maize on the economics of production of finished broilers is shown in Table 7. Cost per kilogram of each diet was N49.57, N47.64, N45.66, N43.73, N41.69 and N39.47 for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 respectively.

On relative basis using the control diet T1 as baseline, the cost ranged from 100% to 79.62% for T1-T6 respectively. This shows that the production cost per kilogram diet decreased as inclusion of CCM increased. This must have resulted from the fact that the cost of a unit of CCM is lower than the cost of a unit of maize, which the CCM replaced. The cost of the discarded stems and leaves incorporated in CCM was minimal deriving only from the cost of processing them (Ukachukwu 2005).

Cost per unit weight gain of the birds that fed on the diet shows no significant (P>0.05) differences. Numerically, diets T1 and T6 had the highest cost/Kg weight gain while diet T4 had the lowest cost/Kg weight gain. However, the gross margin showed significant (P<0.05) differences among the treatment means. Feeding of diets T4 and T5 yielded the highest (P<0.05) gross margin (GM) values that were however similar to the GM values of birds fed diets T2 and T3 but higher (P<0.05) than GM value of birds fed diet T1. Gross margin value of T6 was the lowest (P<0.05). The low GM arising from the use of diet T1 can be attributed to high cost of diet T1 which contains 0% CCM. On the other hand, the lowest GM arising from the feeding of diet T6 is attributable to its depressive effect on the performance (specifically daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio) of the broilers that consumed it.

Experiment 2: Supplementation of CCM-based diets with methionine and/or palm oil

The effect of CCM-based diets supplemented with methionine and/or palm oil on body weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio of starter broiler chicks are shown in Table 8.

There were significant (P<0.05) differences among treatment means of all the parameters and they all followed a similar pattern. Birds fed D4 and D5 diets had significantly higher (P<0.05) body weight (698g and 710g) and body weight gain (22.25g and 22.57g) than birds fed D2 (body weight 521g, daily weight gain 15.74g) but were similar to those fed D1 control (body weight 698g, daily weight gain 20.36g) and D3 (body weight 640g, daily weight gain 18.40g).

The feed conversion ratios and protein efficiency ratios of D5 (3.11 and 1.51), D4 (3.06 and 1.49) and D1 (3.00 and 1.53) were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those of D2 (4.19 and 1.09) but similar to those of D3 (3.48 and 1.32). This may be as a result of the high energy and high digestibility of palm oil, its role as a binder of mash grains to reduce ulcerogenic effect of the bird’s gastric mucosa, increase in feed intake as compared to non-supplemented CCM diets.

The depression of the final live weight of birds fed D2 (60% CCM) inclusion as compared to D5 which has palm oil and methionine may be as a result of poor diet utilization, dusty nature of the feed and possibly, the content of HCN, which is the major inhibitor in cassava. Also the low energy level of the diet may have contributed to poor feed utilization. This is in line with the findings of Montilla (1976) who said that the form in which the cassava diets are fed affects the consumption and utilization by the animal in question. The supplemented palm oil served as a binder and thus improved the texture by reducing the dustiness in the diets. On the other hand, methionine improved the amino acid profile of the diet. This agrees with Phua and Hutagalung (1974) who concluded that there were no adverse effects of the diet that was properly supplemented with methioline and palm oil. Enriquez and Rose (1967) had observed that 0.15% methionine supplementation of cassava-based diets would significantly improve weight gain and feed conversion ratio of chicks compared to maize. Moorty and Mathew (1998) indicated that palm oil plays some biochemical role in cyanide detoxification. Hutagalung (1972) had also concluded that palm oil corrects growth depression occasioned by cyanide toxicity.

Comparison of performance of birds in D5 (CCM-based diets supplementation with palm oil and methionine) with D4 (CCM-based diets supplemented with palm oil only) and D3 (CCM-based diet supplemented with methionine only) gave interesting results. There were no significant differences among the treatment means.  However, the values of D5 and D4 in all the parameters (final body weight, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio) were similar and significantly higher than those of D3. This is also reflected in the daily feed intake values of the three treatments. Two reasons may be adduced here. One has to do with the dustiness of the diets. The dustiness, with its attendant irritation, may not have allowed optimum consumption of the D3 diet, such that the birds on diet D3 may not have consumed enough feed to meet its nutrient requirements for full manifestation. The physical irritation is even enough discomfort to disallow full manifestation of the bird’s genetic potential.     

The second point has to do with provision of energy, availability of amino acid and detoxification of cyanide. The palm oil in D4 and D5 provided extra energy than in D3. The energy supplied more carbon atoms that allowed for better utilization of the protein in the diet.

Supplementation with methionine alone may not have resulted in much extra amino acids in D3. This is obvious when D3 is compared with D2, and it is seen that the two were not significantly different. This further suggests that the problem of CCM is more of its dustiness rather than deficiency in amino acids. Addition of palm oil alone takes care of the dustiness and, perhaps, also acts further in detoxification of cyanide that may still remain in the CCM. It could be recalled that the CCM is made up of cassava root, discarded (old and tender non-plantable) stem and leaves. The incorporated leaves must have supplied the needed amino acids since, according to Yeoh and Chew (1976), the total essential amino acid content of cassava leaf meal protein is similar to that found in hen’s egg.

Conclusions 

• Composite cassava meal (CCM) can substitute up to 60% of maize in both starter and finisher broiler diets without depression effects on the performance of the chicks consuming them. This translates to about 36% and 38% CCM in broiler starter and broiler finisher mashes respectively.

  
  

• Dustiness of composite cassava meal (CCM) as feedstuff is more important than the issue of its amino acid content, since the leaf component of the CCM would supply a good profile of essential amino acids needful in the feedstuff.  

  
  

• Supplementation of CCM-based diet with palm oil (and/or without methionine) is recommended to take care of dustiness of the diet caused by the presence of the cassava product. Otherwise, the CCM could be pelleted. However, on the basis of cost, supplementation with palm oil alone is preferred to supplementation with palm oil and methionine since the additional supplementation with methionine would mean extra cost.

Acknowledgement 

The author acknowledges the efforts of the young men who served as field and laboratory assistants in carrying out this study in the persons of C Chukwu, S P Ukpong and L U C Agbarakwe.

References 

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Received 26 October 2007; Accepted 8 January 2008; Published 4 April 2008

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