Herders' knowledge on mineral nutrition and implication on sheep and goat productivity in Marsabit South District, Kenya

M I Lengarite, P N Mbugua*, C K Gachuiri* and L W Kabuage*

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, KARI-Marsabit, P.O Box 147, Marsabit, Kenya
moslengarite@hotmail.com
* Department of Animal production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

A cross-sectional survey was undertaken in Merille location, Marsabit South district of northern Kenya to assess indigenous knowledge on mineral nutrition of sheep and goats. Questionnaires were administered to herders randomly selected from three purposively selected pastoral settlements. Information was collected on indicators of mineral adequacy and deficiencies, mineral nutrition practices and health and production characteristics of sheep and goats.

 

The results showed that herders could identify mineral deficiencies (81.3%) and adequacies (87.0%) in their herds using indigenous knowledge. The indicators of mineral adequacy were healthy appearance, shiny skin and fatness, while those of mineral deficiencies were poor health conditions, rough coat, pica and slow growth in sheep and goats. Eighty five percent of respondents observed mineral deficiencies to dry season pastures, while 45.7% observed mineral deficiencies in the wet season. Ninety four percent of respondent used local supplementary remedies such as grazing animals on salty plants, facilitating access by stock to saline water and natural salt licks. Halophyte plants, such as Lycium europaeum, Salsola dendriodes, and Salvadora persica species, which are mostly found in the riverine, emerged as the most prominent salt supplements for herds. Traditional indicators of low productivity, which included general poor health, pica, and diarrhea among others were different (P<0.05) between sites. The herders indigenous knowledge on mineral nutrition demonstrated by the herders need to be recognized and form part of mineral nutrition interventions in the area. The riverine ecosystem rich in mineral resources of salt lick, halophyte plants and salty waters, and perceived to be declining, need to be protected and sustainably utilized.   

Key words: feed, migration, pastoralism, rangelands, survey, traditional knowledge, water

Introduction

Local knowledge is an important asset for smallholder farmers who operate differently in diverse crop and livestock production systems in the tropics (Komwihangilo et al 2007). Pastoral producers in the arid and semi-arid lands of northern Kenya, rely mostly on the indigenous knowledge system in the management of their flocks/herds of sheep and goats. The traditional lifestyle involves seasonal migration of herds in search of pasture and water (Langill and Ndathi 2002). Migratory pastoralism remains the most important land use system allowing full exploitation of resources that are unequally distributed in space and time (Ellis et al 1988) as well as managing risks. Seasonal movement of herds is a common feature in pastoral system and affects livestock production and rangeland utilization (Schwartz et al 1991).

 

The pastoral herding system has implication on feed, mineral and water availability for the animals (Kaufmann 1998). It enables the animals to access wide rangeland areas and exposes them to different soils, forages and water sources. Consequently, the animals are able to obtain mixed diets that provide a wide range of nutrients (Schillhorn van Veen and Loeffler 1990). This system of production is however gradually changing, from migratory to sedentary pastoralism in vicinities proximal to trading settlements (Harry 1999). The shift to sedentary herding system, which is characterized by limited mobility, influences small ruminant productivity.

 

Several studies conducted in the rangelands of northern Kenya, indicate that sheep and goats are the most dominant livestock species kept by sedentary pastoralists. DeVries and Pelant (1987) noted that sedentary households keeping a significant proportion of sheep and goats are likely to adapt more readily to a sedentary lifestyle. Traditionally, grazing distance in sheep and goats are adjusted to allow the frequent watering regime. This limits small ruminant mobility, thus they have access to poor quality pastures near permanent water sources. The reduced degree of mobility is likely to expose small ruminants to nutrient deficiencies, including minerals, which can adversely affect herd productivity. 

 

Pastoral sheep and goat producers recognize the value of mineral nutrition as exemplified by their efforts to move animals to areas with natural salt licks, salty plants and saline water sources (Kariuki and Letitiya 1998). Consumption of salty plants and saline water sources are used as traditional remedies to deworm sheep and goats (Lengarite and Mbuvi  2004). Soil licks in specific localities of the lowlands are also collected for supplementing sheep and goats in high altitude areas. Mobile herds have been observed by pastoralists to have high craving for soil licks and saline waters than sedentary herds. In the low lands of northern Kenya, indigenous mineral supplementation strategies are commonly used to correct mineral deficiencies in camel herds (Kuria et al 2004).  The information gathered on indigenous knowledge on mineral nutrition will contribute to mineral nutrition interventions for semi-sedentary small ruminant herds, in Marsabit South district.

 

The objectives of the study were: (i) To assess herders knowledge on mineral nutrition in sheep and goat production; (ii) To establish the traditional indicators on perceived mineral inadequacies and adequacies; (iii) Identify traditional mineral sources and supplementary remedies.

Materials and Methods

Study site

 

The study was conducted in Merille location (1^o39’-55’N, 37^o64’-85’E, 409m asl) of Marsabit South District in northern Kenya. The area is inhabited by Rendille and Arial pastoral communities and is a major market outlet for livestock in the district. The area is characterized by an arid climate with an annual mean, rainfall of 275mm (Xiaogang 2005) and temperatures ranging between 28-42^oC. The annual precipitation is distributed between two seasons, the short rains occurring from November to December and the long rains from March to May.

 

The landscape of the area is characterized by basement hill outcrops, prominent seasonal river originating from Mathew ranges, and the sedimentary plain sloping towards the east. The seasonal riverine valley forms an integral grazing ecosystem for small ruminants throughout the year. The soil texture derived from basement system of rocks range from deep sandy, sandy loam to stony sandy loam (Touber 1991).  The major vegetation types found in the area are riverine woodland, dwarf shrubs and shrub grass land. The dominant vegetation along the riverine includes Acacia tortilis, Cordia sinensis, Salvadora persica and under storey of annual grasses and herbs. In the sedimentary plains and hills, the woodland vegetation consists of Acacia and Commiphora communities and dwarf shrubs of Indigofera spinosa, Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii and Barleria acanthoides.

Household survey

 

Systematic random sampling survey technique was used to gather data on indigenous knowledge on mineral nutrition. The survey involved administering questionnaires to 60 households in three purposively selected pastoral settlements in the study area. The pastoral settlements (sampling units) had roughly the same households, about (30-40). In each settlement a list was compiled and 20 households were randomly selected to participate in the survey. The proportion of the 20 households selected in each of the settlement represented about (50-60%) of the households. The three pastoral settlements, namely Kamotonyi, Lorora and Salt lick (located on the south, west and eastern part of the location, respectively) represented the main semi-sedentary settlements, spatially spread and use different grazing areas of Merille location. The grazing areas correspond to the settlements.

 

To estimate herd productivity, data on herd characteristics, which included annual market sales, age at first breeding, annual number of young stock (360-720 day old) owned and number showing low performances were collected.

 

Data analysis

 

The data was coded in MS Excel and the variables with normal distribution analyzed using statistiXL version 1.7 (MS excel 2007). The normally distributed multivariate data was subjected to one way analysis of variance and means between study sites were compared using student Newman Keuls test.

Results and Discussion

Flock/herd characteristics

The flock characteristics are shown in Table 1. The mean flock/herd size per household was 65±7.8 and 46±7 for goats and sheep respectively. The herds were mainly dominated by goats (59%), with a sheep to goat ratio of 1:1.4. The higher number of goats could be attributed to the higher fecundity of goats compared to sheep. Also goats, are better adapted to survive on low quality feed resources than sheep. The mean age at first breeding was 400 and 444 days for sheep and goats, respectively. The observed mean age at first mating of 444 days in goats, was comparable to the mean age of 438 days reported in pastoral goats in southern Ethiopia (Tolera and Abebe 2007).The recommended age of first breeding in meat sheep and goats was 12 months (Mbogo 2007). Sheep and goats in the study area delayed in the attainment of the first breeding age, resulting to low flock/herd reproductive performance. 

 

The mean market off-take for goats was 24.3% which was higher (P< 0.05) than that of sheep (22.1%). The off take (proportion of sheep and goats sold per herd/flock in a year), was lower than those earlier estimated (34.2% and 41.4% in sheep and goats), in Marsabit district (Schwartz et al 1991). However, the off-take rate of sheep and goats in the area was higher than the national small ruminant off-take rate of 14 % (Kiptarus 2007).  Household herd size plays an important role in determining herd offtake rates (McPeak 1999). In Marsabit district, pastoral households with large herds participate more actively in livestock markets (Barrett et al 2005). The most marketed age class was animals between 360 and 720 days of age with an overall mean of 40.2% and 42.4% of respondents in sheep and goats, respectively. The (360-720 days) age category dominated the local small ruminant meat market in Merille. The high offtake of sheep and goats in Merille could be attributed to large herd sizes and functional local market.  Of the sheep and goats marketed, 54.3 and 54.5% comprise of male, while 45.7 and 45.6% were in the female categories respectively. Pastoral households usually retain breeding female animals, and prefer to sell male animals, which constitute the non-producing component of the small ruminant population (Njiru 1983).

Traditional grazing system of small ruminants

 

It is a common practice among pastoralists to designate forage resources routinely used during favorable periods as primary grazing sites (Ndikumana et al 2000). The semi-sedentary settlements have commonly preferred grazing areas with specific vegetation types. The mean number of grazing sites used by households was 3.7 (Table 2). In the dry season small ruminant herds cover considerable distance, with a mean radius of 9.7 km, and shorter distances of 4.6 km in the wet season (Table 2). The grazing radius was strongly influenced (P<0.05) by season and the study area. In the wet season increased forage availability results into shorter grazing distance while poor quality forages in the dry season forces the animals to travel longer distances. Sanon et al (2007) in the study of grazing behavior of sheep, cattle and goats, observed that animals spent more time walking to the grazing sites in the dry season than rainy season.

Study sites varied in grazing distances, with animals in Kamotonyi settlement covering longer distances as compared to Lorora and Salt lick due to lack of suitable pasture and overgrazing around the Kamotonyi. Grazing animals followed specific routes and used different vegetation types. In a single grazing bout herds used a mean of three vegetation types in the dry season and two in the wet season. The number of vegetation types covered was higher in the dry season than wet season, ascribed to longer distances traveled to grazing sites. To overcome the poor condition of pastures in the dry season, herders resort to graze animals in distant pastures and travel through more vegetation types.

Traditional indicators of perceived mineral deficiencies and adequacies

 

Perceived mineral adequacies and deficiencies were observed by 87% and 81.3% of respondents, respectively (Table 3). A high proportion of respondents (85%) associated mineral deficiencies to dry season pastures, while only about 45.7% observed mineral deficiencies in the wet season.

The traditional indicators of mineral adequacy in sheep and goats were given as healthy appearance, shiny skin, fatness, fast growth and high milk yield. However, the indicator on milk yield was valued in goats and fast growth rate only in sheep. The key indicators of mineral adequacy were healthy appearances (82.8%, 84.5%) and a shiny skin (55.2%, 35%) for sheep and goats respectively (Table 4). Fatness was a lesser indicator of mineral adequacy and was indicated by 24.1% and 13.8% of respondents for sheep and goats respectively.

During the dry season, a decline in the quantity and quality of available pasture was assumed to result in low mineral consumption and thereby perceived deficiency. Herders perceive that animals exposed to good pastures were less vulnerable to disease attack. The improved health status and skin appearances observed mostly in the wet season, were attributed to adequate diet and salt consumption. In northern Kenya, pastoral communities such as the Samburu place great value on natural salt claiming that it improves health, prevent illness and has curative properties for worms (Kariuki and Letitiya 1998).

Conversely the indicators of mineral deficiencies in sheep and goats were poor health, rough skin coat, pica and slow growth in young stock (Figure 1). Poor health was a strong indicator of mineral deficiency status of herds. About 74.3% and 86.4% of respondents attributed poor health to mineral inadequacies in sheep and goats, respectively. Pica was ranked second by 35.6% and 30.4% of respondents in sheep and goats respectively. Rough hair coat as an indicator was third reported by 28% and 33.1% of respondents in sheep and goats respectively. Perceived slow growth was less attributed to mineral deficiencies in sheep and goats (Figure 1). It can be concluded that healthy appearance and shiny skin were the key indicators of mineral adequacy.

Disease incidences such as contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) and parasite infestation such as ectoparasites and helminths were among the major health problems affecting pastoral herds in Kenya (Kosgey et al 2008) The deficiency of minerals in the diet may accentuate parasitic infestation leading to severe clinical signs of diseases (Szefer and Nriagu  2007).

 

Sources of minerals and practices of mineral supplementation

 

Two percent of the respondents in the study area supplemented sheep and goats with commercial minerals formulations. However, 94% of respondents used local supplement remedies such as grazing on salty plants, facilitating access by the stock to saline water and salt lick.  Salty plants emerged as the main mineral source for sheep and goats in the study area, mostly the Lycium europaeum, Salsola dendriodes, and Salvadora persica species. Salty forage plants are good natural sources of minerals and animals at the same time access water in green forages (Dinucci and Zeremariam 2003). However, halophyte plants are characterized by high accumulation of minerals in the above ground tissues, which limit their use in animal feeding (Al-Dakheel et al 2008).

 

Approximately 93% of respondents reported a high abundance of local supplementary sources of salty plants, salty wells and salt licks within the riverine area while 42.5% reported availability in the bush shrub land grazing areas (Table 5). Due to their ability to tap retained underground moisture, most salty plants are found within the seasonal riverine area. Merille riverine valley seasonally becomes flooded with waters originating from the Mathew ranges on the west. The waters carry salt and sediment and upon drying they form natural salt licks along the riverbed.

Ten salty plants were identified by herders, who however noted that the abundance of these plants was declining (Table 6). Important salty plants (Figure 2) browsed by sheep and goats were Salvadora persica (SP) Dactyloctenium aegyptium (DA), Indigofera hochstetteri (IH), Salsola dendroides (SD) Bauhimia taitenis (BT) and Lycium europaeum (LE). The Rendille herders in the Marsabit district have been reported to move camels to access salt rich plants such as Salsola dendroides (Kauffmann 1998). Analysis of salty plants by Kuria (2004) in south west Marsabit showed that Lycium europaeum, Salsola dendriodes, Salvadora persica, Indigofera hochstetteri and Dactyloctenium spp. had sodium levels of 24, 54, 15, 1 and 28 gkg^-1DM, respectively. Except for Indigofera hochstetteri, which was low in Na, these plants accumulate sodium and levels surpass sheep and goats (Na) requirement of 1g Na/Kg DM.

Watering herds/flocks in the salty wells was one way of providing minerals to sheep and goats during the dry season. Direct ingestion of soil from natural salt licks may supplement the intake of some minerals (Mayland and Wilkinson 1996). However, in the study area, natural salt lick was not an important local mineral supplement compared to salty plants and water sources. A study conducted in Peru confirmed that natural licks had higher concentration of minerals than non-salt lick soils (Montenegro 2004). It appears that salty plants and water sources satisfied the salt supplementation needs of herds in the area. Where naturally occurring salt content is high, the salt component of the mineral supplements need to be substituted with other palatable stimulators such as molasses (McDowell 1996). 

 

Herders in the study area have wealth of knowledge on mineral nutrition as indicated by their ability to identify rich sources of minerals. Indicators of a rich mineral source varied among respondents, with soil type (66%) identified as major indicator of rich mineral resources of an area. Drinking water was second (45%) and the vegetation type found in an area. third (40%). The natural salt lick (29.7%) was the least indicator of rich mineral sources. The semi-sedentary herds grazing on salty plants and drinking salty waters had less preference for salt licks. Herders perceive that soils influence the type of vegetation and water found in an area. Traditionally, soils are classified by use of color. White colored soils are linked to high salt content and availability of natural salt licks and salty waters. Respondents also perceive that various type of drinking water vary in taste, level of sediments and salt content.

In the study area, herders recognized the mineral value of forage plants, drinking water and natural salt lick. However, over the last 20 years, the number of accessible salty water sources and salty plants have both declined by 40 % (Table 6). The most preferred forage plants and natural salt licks have also declined by about 17.6% and 25% respectively. Natural salt licks found along watering points provide animals with minerals (Njoro 2003). The general decline in the availability of key mineral sources could be ascribed to overgrazing in the semi-sedentary settlements, and reduced accessibility of natural salt licks and salty waters found in specific localities.

Proportion of small ruminants (360 to 720 days old) with low productivity

 

Growing sheep and goats are an important class of small ruminants that dominate in herd market offtake and form the foundation of future sheep and goat herd. The proportions of growing animals in a herd are generally indicators of herd productivity. Young animals were perceived to succumb to diseases with under-nutrition and mineral inadequacies leading to loss of weight. The traditional indicators of reduced productivity in young sheep and goats were poor health, slow growth, weight loss, pica, skin diseases and diarrhea. These indicators were significantly different (P<0.05) between study sites. There were more sheep and goats with low productivity, based on these indicators, in Lorora than in other areas (Tables 7 and 8).

 

A higher proportion of growing sheep (42.6% ) had poor health, 41% had diarrhea, 24% had suffered from skin diseases, 25.4%  showed pica, 26% loss of weight and 9.1% showed stunted growth (Table 7). In the young goats, about 33.8% showed poor health, 20% stunted growth, 17% loss of weight, 20.2% pica condition, 12.3% skin diseases and 23% had diarrhea incidences (Table 8).

 

The survey showed that a high proportion of sheep (42%) and goats (34%) suffered from poor health. Perceived retarded health and diarrhea were the main factors responsible for low production of sheep and goats. Poor health is the key limiting factor to productivity of sheep and goats in the tropics (Kosgey et al 2008).

 Incidences of perceived loss of weight and pica, affected growing sheep and goats respectively. The incidence of pica was associated to mineral, protein and energy deficiencies (Underwood and Suttle 1999). Low productivity in growing sheep and goats can be associated to poor nutrition, which includes minerals, and diseases.

Conclusions and recommendations

• Small ruminant owners, through local knowledge, recognize the value of minerals and can detect mineral deficiencies and adequacies in their herds/flocks. Through this knowledge, mineral deficiencies and adequacies were reported to occur mostly in dry and wet season respectively.

• The indicators of mineral deficiencies as perceived by herders, in growing sheep and goats, were low productivity namely poor health, pica, diarrhea, loss of weight and stunted growth. Conversely, healthy appearance and shiny skin coat were the key indicators of mineral adequacy. Thus, traditional indicators were distinct for mineral deficiency and adequacy and in sheep and goats.

• Halophyte plants emerged as key local salt supplement for sheep and goats in the area. The riverine ecosystem that was demonstrated to be rich in mineral resources of salt lick, halophyte plants and salty waters needsto be protected and sustainably utilized.

• Mineral deficiencies mainly affecting herds/flocks in the dry season need to be addressed.

• It can be concluded that local knowledge demonstrated by the herders should from part of mineral nutrition interventions.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge KASAL for financial and technical support and thank the coordination team lead by Director KARI, Dr.D.Miano and Dr.M.Younan. We also thank the local community elders for their welcome spirit and pastoral households for accepting to participate in the survey. We appreciate the herders experienced in the local flora and Mr. Hussein Walaga of KARI-Marsabit for botanical identification of salty plants.

References

AL-Dakheel A, AL-Hadrami G, AL-Shoraby S and Shabbir G 2008 The potential of salt-tolerant plants and marginal resources in developing and integrated forage- livestock production system. 2^nd International salinity Forum. Adelaide, Australia.

 

Barrett C B, Bellemare M F and Osterloh S M 2005 Household-Level Livestock Marketing Behavior Among Northern Kenyan and Southern Ethiopia Pastoralists.Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA, pp. 3-4.

 

DeVries J and Pelant R K 1987 Social implications of goat herding by pastoral people-with emphasis on East Africa. Proceedings of the IV International conference on goats, Brasilia, VolII: 837-845.

 

Dinucci A and Zeremariam F 2003 Understanding the indigenous knowledge and information systems of pastoralists in Eritrea. Food and Agriculture Organization, United  Nations, Rome, Italy. pp.1-14.