Effect of replacement of maize with tapioca (Manihot esculenta) root meal on the performance of growing crossbred pigs

I Tzudir, N Savino and K C Das*

School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Medziphema, Nagaland
* NRC on Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema, Nagaland
tzudir.tzudir@gmail.com

Abstract

The performance of growing cross bred pigs was evaluated when maize was replaced with tapioca (Manihot esculenta) root meal at different levels. Twenty four crossbred piglets (Large black X Nagaland local) were randomly divided into three groups of eight animals in each group. Control group of animals (0MR) was fed on a maize-based ration, whereas other two groups of animals (25MR & 50MR) were fed on rations where maize was replaced with tapioca root meal at 25 and 50 percentages respectively. The three rations i.e. 0MR, 25MR and 50MR were iso-nitrogenous and isocaloric.

The average daily gain (ADG) in 50 per cent replacement group (50MR) increased significantly compared to control group (0MR). The digestibility of  Dry Matter (DM), Organic Matter (OM), Ether Extract (EE) in 50 per cent replacement group (50MR) was higher compared to control group. Incidence of diarrhea was more in animals of the control group (0MR) and severity and duration of diarrhoea was reduced as the level of tapioca root meal inclusion increased in the diet. The result showed that, tapioca root meal can be included in the diet of cross bred pigs up to a level of 50 percent with distinct economic advantage.

Keywords: digestibility, daily gain, intake, FCR

Introduction

In India, livestock sector has a significant impact on the growth of the country’s economy. About 50 percent of the 630 million people living in rural areas are poor and largely dependent on livestock sector for their income and employment (Prabaharan 2000). Among various species of livestock, pig is considered the most important in North-eastern hilly (NEH) region of India as tribal people mostly prefer pork in their diet. Almost every rural household in NEH region rears pigs as subsidiary source of income. So pig farming has a special significance in this part of India as it can play an important role in improving the socio-economic status of the weaker rural community.

Feed is the single largest item representing about 70-75 % of total cost of production in pig husbandry. Pig ration usually contain cereal grains like maize, wheat, barley or oats as source of energy. The farmers are handicapped on feeding of cereals because of high cost of cereal grains. It is therefore imperative to find low cost feeds for sustaining the productivity of animals. Tapioca or cassava root meal as energy source in the pig diet would greatly relief the farmers from the heavy burden of feed cost. The world average productivity of tapioca has been reported as 10 tons/ha, whereas India has recorded 24.5 tons/ha (Edison 2007). It is abundantly available in NEH region of India and is used for livestock feeding.  Tapioca is capable of providing very high yields of energy/ha.  It is high in soluble carbohydrate and low in protein and fibre (Dominguez 1990). The level of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in cassava which limits its use is considerably eliminated by chopping and sun-drying thereby rendering it completely safe for livestock feeding (Tewe et al. 1980). Tapioca meal has been successfully used in the diets of pigs (weaning to 20-25 Kg BW) to the extent of 20-25 % (Gomez 1992). Considering the abundant availability of tapioca in this region and as a source of soluble carbohydrate for pig diet, an experiment was conducted on growing cross bred pigs by replacing maize with processed tapioca root meal as energy source to study the growth performance, feed intake, digestibility of different nutrient, feed conversion efficiency (FCR) and economics of pig production.

Objectives

The effects of replacement of maize with tapioca root meal at different levels were evaluated with the following objectives

• To study the effect of inclusion of tapioca root meal on growth, feed intake, FCR and cost of feeding

• To study the effect of inclusion of tapioca root meal on digestibility and incidence of diarrhoea

Materials and Methods

Experimental designs

The experiment was conducted at the Piggery Farm of the Department of Animal Production and Management under School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development (SASRD), Medziphema, Nagaland, India. Twenty four crossbred piglets (Large black x Nagaland local) of about two months of age were procured from nearby villages of Dimapur, Nagaland. The animals were de-wormed as per standard schedule and vaccinated against prevalent contagious diseases. The animals were also conditioned for a period of 15 days prior to the experiment. During the experiment, all the pens including feeding and watering troughs were washed with potassium permanganate solution daily before feeding and watering. Feeding and water trough were provided separately for each individual pig.

Three experimental rations were formulated for feeding the crossbred pigs for 12 weeks of age. Control ration was formulated by including the ground maize as per BIS (1986) whereas other two treatment rations were formulated by replacing the maize with tapioca root meal at 25 and 50 percentage level respectively. Three rations were iso-nitrogenous and isocaloric. The composition of experimental rations used in the experiment is presented in table 1. The tapioca root for inclusion in experimental rations was procured from the local market of Mokokchung of Nagaland state of India and then it was ground for incorporation into experimental ration. In the normal practice, farmers chop the tapioca root into flakes after harvesting, dry and then sell in the market. Twenty four growing crossbred pigs of about 2 months of age were distributed into three groups of eight animals each in a randomized block design. One group of animals were fed on maize based ration (0MR) where as other two groups of animals (25MR and 50MR) were fed on rations replacing maize with tapioca root meal at 25 and 50 percentages respectively. The animals were fed ad. libitum and clean water was provided all the times throughout the experiment.

Feed was offered ad libitum to each animal and amount of feed offered and residue left were recorded daily before cleaning and watering. The DM    percentage of offered and residue feed were estimated daily for calculation of DM intake. Clean drinking water was provided ad libitum daily throughout the experimental period. Animals were weighed at weekly interval in the morning before feeding and watering. At the end of feeding trial of twelve weeks, six days digestibility trial was conducted in five animals of each group to study the digestibility of nutrients.  During this period, quantity of feed offered, feed residue and faecal outgo on 24 hour basis was recorded. The representative samples of feed offered, feed residue and faeces were taken daily to laboratory for proximate analysis and analyzed as per AOAC (2000). The body weights of animals were recorded before and after the conduction of digestibility trial. The feed conversion efficiency was calculated from average feed intake and body weight gain during different phases of experiment. The economics of feeding was calculated from market price if different ingredients used for the feeding of animals. The incidence of diarrhoea was recorded in all the three groups of animals frombeginning till completion of experiment.

Statistical analysis

The statistical analyses were done as per Sndecor and Cochran (1980) to determine mean, standard error and ANOVA test was performed to test the significance of  performance when tapioca root meal was added at different levels.

Results and discussion

The effects of replacement of maize with tapioca root were studied in crossbred pigs on three different diets i.e. 0MR, 25MR and 50 MR by replacing maize with tapioca at 0, 25 and 50 percentages respectively. Crossbred growing pigs of about 10 kg body weight were randomly divided into three groups and fed either of the three types of ration for a period of 12 weeks.

Chemical composition of tapioca root meal

The chemical composition of tapioca root meal used for the feeding of the experimental animals has been presented in table 1. 

The composition showed that, Dry Matter (DM), Crude Protein (CP), Ether Extract (EE), Crude Fibre (CF), Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE) and Total Ash (TA) percentage of tapioca root meal used in this experiment were 94.20, 3.30, 0.60, 2.70, 91.10 and 2.30 percentages respectively. When tapioca root meal was compared with the maize, it was found that, the Crude Protein content of tapioca root meal was less (Muller et al. 1974; Dominquez 1985 and Wu 1991) whereas the Crude Fibre (CF) content was more than the ground maize (Muller et al. 1974). The Ether Extract content of the tapioca root was poor and similar to the findings of other workers (Muller et al 1974; Wu 1991). Tapioca root meal analyzed in this study contained rich source of NFE which is in agreement with those of Muller et al. (1972) and Dominquez (1985). The energy content (ME) of tapioca root in pig was somewhat similar as maize (Muller 1974; FAO 2004and Wu 1991).

Chemical composition of experimental ration       

The chemical composition of rations used during the feeding experiment has been presented in Table 2.

The three rations were iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric. The percentages of other nutrients in three different rations were almost same while replacing the maize with tapioca root as there was alteration of ingredients in the ration. The CP and ME level of these three experimental rations were as per the requirement of BIS (1986).

Growth performance

The average daily gain (ADG), feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and cost of feeding of the crossbred pigs has been presented in table 3.

There was increase in ADG of animals as the experiment continued from 0 week to 12 weeks. The growth rate of pigs in this experiment is same as the growth rate reported by other workers (Aumaitre 1969 and Wu 1991). Thi Loc (1997) observed 465g average daily gain by feeding cassava root meal in the diet of crossbred pig of Vietnam and the result was almost in the same line as of this experiment.

The growth rate of pigs in 50MR group increased significantly compared to control (0MR) group. This agreement was same as reported by other workers (Aumaitre 1969; Chou et al 1975 and Wu 1991). Ngoan and Ly (2007) reported that, inclusion of 30 percent of ensiled cassava root in the diet of crossbred pigs improved the average daily gain of pigs in village condition. This may be because of better utilization of nutrients in the ration containing tapioca root. It is reported that, the starch of tapioca root is better digested in pig compared to maize (Kanto et al 2009). In the present experiment it was observed that, the palatability of the ration was good and animals had better acceptability to the ration containing tapioca root compared to maize. In contrast to this result, few workers did not find any improvement of growth rate by feeding tapioca root meal in the ration of crossbred pigs (Jiménez et al 2005).

Feed intake

The feed intake recorded in this experiment was comparatively less, while compared with the growth performance of pigs in different parts of the world (Tewe et al. 1986 and ThiLoc et al. 2000). This may be because of the difference of breed used in this experiment. The cross-bred pigs used in this experiment have been popularized by the Government for the local farmers of this region. This showed that, general growth performance of crossbred pigs of this region was quite satisfactory.

There was increase in intake of feed when grain was replaced with tapioca root at different levels, but statistically it was not significant during the whole experimental period. It was observed that, the ration containing tapioca root meal was readily accepted by the pigs and there was good palatability similar to the finding of previous worker (Muller et al 1974). Many workers reported that the inclusion of cassava roots in the diets of growing pigs did not affect the feed intake compared to control (Tewe et al 1986; ThiLoc et al. 2000 and Jiménez et al 2005). However some worker observed increase in feed intake when tapioca root meal was included in the diet of crossbred pigs (Chou et al  1975).

Feed Conversion Ratio

The FCR recorded in this experiment was comparable to the findings of other workers (Job 1975 and Chutia 1984) and the result was quite satisfactory. 

There was improvement in trend in FCR when maize was replaced with tapioca root meal at different levels. However, there was no significant difference during different phases of the experiment and also during the whole experiment in respect of FCR. The result was because of increased trend of feed intake in the groups replaced with tapioca root meal. This finding was in agreement with the findings of previous workers (Chicco et al 1972; Wyllie and Lekule 1980 and Jiménez et al 2005). However some workers reported improvement in feed conversion when tapioca root meal was included in the diet of crossbred pigs (Sonaiya and Omole 1982; Tewe et al. 1986 and Wu 1991).

Digestibility of nutrients

The digestibility coefficient of various nutrients such as Dry Matter (DM), Organic Matter (OM), Total Carbohydrates (TCHO), Ether Extract (EE), Crude Fiber (CF) and Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE) are presented in table 4.

The values of the digestibility of different nutrients were within the normal range as reported by Pathak and Ranjhan (1973), Prasad et al (1991) and Lekule and Sarwatt(1988). The Dry Matter (DM), Organic Matter (OM) and Ether Extract (EE) digestibility of animals in 50MR group increased significantly (P<0.05) compared to 0MR group whereas there was no change in digestibility of these parameters in 25MR group. Improvement in digestibility of DM and OM of 50MR group of this experiment was because of the fact that, starch in tapioca root meal is easily digestible by the animals compared to the less digestible maize used in this experiment. Improvement in the digestibility of EE may be because of associative effect of starch on other nutrients. Research finding has shown that cassava root diets improved the digestibility of DM or OM in various experiments (Wu 1991;Pascual-Reas 1997; An et al. 2004 and Hang et al. 2009). However, Kakala (1981) found depression of DM digestibility where as Muller et al (1974) reported no difference in the digestibility of organic matter (OM) when the diets were based on cassava. This shows, the result of the experiment depends on the level of inclusion of tapioca root meal and physiological stages of animal. The value of the CP digestibility in growing pigs was comparable to the values reported by Pathak and Ranjhan (1973) and Lekule and Sarwatt (1988). There was increased trend of CP digestibility as tapioca root meal was increased, but statistically it could not cross the level of significance. This may be because of very low level of protein in tapioca root meal compared to maize.  Experiments have shown that, tapioca root meal did not affect the digestibility of CP (Lekule and Sarwatt 1988).  In contrast to these findings, some workers have reported either increase or decrease of CP digestibility when tapioca root meal included in the diet of pigs (Wu 1991 and An et al 2004). There was no significant difference of CF digestibility between three types of diet which was in agreement with previous worker (Hang et al. 2009). There was no significant difference of NFE digestibility between the three groups of animals. Lekule and Sarwatt (1988) also observed the same findings when cassava root meal was included in the diet of pigs.

Incidence of diarrhoea

The result showing incidence of diarrhoea during the experimental period is presented in table 5.

It was observed that more number of animals of the control group (0 MR) exhibited incidences of diarrhoea during the initial part (0-8 weeks) and continued for long period. Few numbers of animals were also suffered from diarrhoea in the 25 MR group during the same period but intensity and duration of diarrhoea was less. Interestingly, only one animal suffered from diarrhoea in 50 MR group. Starch in cassava perhaps was well digested in the upper part of the small intestine and provided beneficial effects on the growth of nonpathogenic bacteria. There are reports which supported this hypothesis as decrease in pH of the digestive tract probably is responsible for  reduction in the population of pathogenic bacteria particularly E.coli when fed on tapioca root meal ( Kanto et al 2009). Aumaitre (1967) also reported drop in the incidence of diarrhoea in pigs fed cassava meal compared to wheat, barley or maize based diet. This showed that, cassava may act as a functional feed ingredient and that could improve the health and disease resistance of the animals (Kanto and Juttupornpong 2004).

Conclusions

•             The average daily gain (ADG) of crossbred pigs was increased significantly (P<0.05) when 50 per cent of maize was replaced with tapioca root meal (50MR) in the diet compared to control group. There was no significant difference in feed intake and feed conversion ratio in crossbred pigs when level of tapioca root meal was increased in the diet replacing the maize. There was profit when the maize was replaced with tapioca root meal up to 50 percentage level.

  
  

•       The digestibility of Dry Matter (DM), Organic matter (OM) and Ether Extract (EE) of animals with 50 per cent of tapioca root meal showed higher (P<0.05) compared to control group. The incidence, severity and duration of diarrhoea were also reduced in groups fed on tapioca root meal. 

  
  

•        It may be concluded that tapioca root meal can be included in the diet of growing cross bred pigs up to a level of 50 percentages for economizing the pig production in North-eastern hilly region of India. 

References

An L V, Hong T T T and Lindberg J E 2004 Ileal and total tract digestibility in growing pigs fed cassava root meal diets with inclusion of fresh, dry and ensiled sweet potato (Ipomeabatatas L.) leaves. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 114, 127-139.

AOAC 2000 Official methods of analysis.17^thedn. Association of official Analytical Chemist, Washington, DC

Aumaitre A 1967 Futterwert von Tapioka und verschiedenenGetreidearten in Futterationen fur fruhzeitigbabgesetzteFerkel.Zeit.Tierphysiol. Tierernuhr. Futtermittelk, 23, 41-43

Aumaitre  A 1969  Valeur alimentaire du manioc et de differentescereals dans les regimes de sevrage precoce du porcelet : utilization digestive de l’aliment  et eefect sur la croissance des animaux. Ann.Zootech.18, 385-398.

BIS 1986 Requirements for Pig Feeds (IS 7472:19865 (Clause 3.3). Bureau of Indian Standard, ManakBhawan, Bahadur Shah ZafarMarg, New Delhi. 

Chicco C F, Garbati S T, Muller-Haye B and Vecchionacce H I 1972  Laharina de yucca en el engorde de credos. Rev. Argron. Trop., 12, 599-603.

Chou K C, Nah K C and Muller Z 1975 Replacement of maize by high level of tapioca meal in ration for growing/finishing pigs.Nutrition Abstract and Review (Series B) 45, 3660.

Chutia S 1984 Utilization of water treated factory tea waste in the growth performance of Hampshire piglets. M.V.Sc. Thesis, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati.

Dominguez P L 1985 Busqueda y optimizacion de Fuentes nacionales que posibiliten el incrementodelvolumen de desperdicios y subproductosalimenticios disponibles. Informe de Tema. Institutode InvestigacionesPorcina, La Haba. pp 29.

Dominguez P L 1990 Sistema de alimentacionporcina con desperdiciosprocesados y otrossubproductosagroindustriales. Taller Regional sobre Utilizacion de los RecursosAlimentarios en la ProduccionPorcina en America Latina y el Caribe FAO: Instituto de InvestigacionesPorcinas,    Habana, Cuba.

Edison S  2007 Better bargaining price.Survey of Indian Agriculture, 52-56.

FAO 2004 Feasibility of using cassava versus maize or wheat. In: Cassava for livestock feed in sub-Saharan Africa. The Global Cassava Development Strategy, Rome,http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1255e/j1255e00.htm

Gomez G1992 Use of cassava products in pig feeding. In: D.Machin and S. Nyrold. Eds. Roots, Tubers, Plantains and Bananas in Animal Feeding.FAO.Animal Production Health Paper, 95 Rome, 157-167 

Hang D T, Linh N Q, Everts H and Beynen A C 2009 Ileal and total tract digestibility in growing pigs fed cassava root meal and rice bran with inclusion of cassava leaves, sweet potato vine, duckweed and stylosanthes foliage. Livestock Research for Rural Development, volume 21, http://www.lrrd.org/ lrrd21/1/hang21012.htm

Jimenez R F, Gonzalez C, Ojeda A, Vecchionacce H and Ly J 2005  Performance traits of finishing pigs fed graded levels of cassava roots and a mixed foliage meal of cassava and trichanthera leaves. Livestock research for rural development, Volume 17, http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd17/2/jime17014.htm

Job T A 1975 Utilization and protein supplement of cassava for animal feeding and effect of sulphur sources on cyanide detoxification. Ph.D thesis of Animal Science submitted to  University of Ibradam, Nigeria. (cited from  Gomez  GG 1992 Use of cassava product in pig feeding, FAO Animal Production and Health Paper, 1995.

Kakala S N 1981 Feed value of cassava tuberous roots and leaves for growing and fattening pigs.M.Sc thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Kanto U and Juttupornpong S 2004 Utilization of cassava, Soybean meal and soyhulls by swine.Feed and Nutrition, www.swinepro.com/swine-articles/feed.

Kanto U, Juttupornpong S, Moonjit P and Suparp S 2009 Utilization of cassava, Soybean meal and soyhulls by swine. Feed and Nutrition, www.swinepro.com/swine-articles/feed

Lekule F P and Sarwatt S V 1988 Processing and utilization of cassava livestock feed in Tanzania. In: S.K.Hahn, L.Reynolds and G.N.Egbunike, editors, Cassava as livestock feed in Africa. Proceedings of the IITA/ILCA/University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Muller Z, Chou K C, Nah K C and Tan T K 1972 Study of nutritive value of tapioca in economic rations for growing/finishing pigs in the tropics. UNDP/SF Project SIN 67/505, Pig & Poultry Research & Training Institute, Singapore (Pigs), R-672, 1-35.

Muller  Z,  Chou K and Nah K C 1974 Cassava as a total substitute for cereals in livestock and poultry rations.Pages 85-95 in Proceeedings, Conference on Animal Feeds of Tropical and Subtropical Origin, 1-5 April 1974. Tropical Products Institute, London.

Ngoan L D and Ly N T L 2007 The use of cassava roots and leaves for feeding pigs in Vietnam. In, Proc. of 7th Regional Workshop held in Bangkok, Thailand, 28^th Oct.-1^st Nov.2002, pp 518-523.

Pascual-Reas B 1997 A comparative study on the digestibility of cassava, maize, sorghum and barley in various segments of the digestive tract of growing pigs. Livestock Research for Rural Development, Volume 9, http://ftp.sunet.se/wmirror /www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd9/5/phil95.htm

Pathak N N  andRanjhan S K 1973 Nutritional studies of salseed meal as a component of finisher ration in the Large White Yorkshire pigs. Indian Journal of Animal Science, 43, 424-427.

PrabaharanR  2000  Livestock Research investment crucial. The Hindu Survey of   Indian Agriculture, ChennaiPrasad N, Gupta B S and Singh S K 1991 Effect of feeding kosum (Schleicheraoleosa ) cake on the performance of growing crossbred pigs. Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition, 8,111-114.

Snedecor  G W and Cochran  W G  1980  Statistical Method, 9th edition, The Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.

Sonaiya E B and Omole T A 1983 Cassava meal and cassava peel meal in diets for growing pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 8, 211-220.

Tewe O O, Gomez G and Maner J H 1980 Effect of extraneous linamarase on the hydrocyanic acid content of some tropical cassava varieties.Nigerian Journal of Nutrition Science, 1, 27-32.

Tewe O O, Oke O L and Bokgia C 1986 Performance, carcass characteristics, and economy of production in growing pigs fed corn or cassava peel based diets containing varying protein levels. Tropical Veterinarian, 5, 37-48.

Tewe O O and Bokanga M 2001 Feasibility of using cassava versus maize or wheat.Proceedings of the IITA/ILCA/University of Ibadan.

Tewe O O  andBokanga M 2001 Cost effective cassava plant-based rations for poultry and pigs. Proceedings of the ISTRC, Africa Branch (IITA) Ibadan, Nigeria.

Thi Loc N, Ogle R B and Preston T R 1997 Cassava root silage for crossbred pigs under village conditions in Central Vietnam. Livestock Research and Rural Development, Volume 9(2), http://www.lrrd.org /lrrd9/2/loc922.htm

Thi Loc N, Huy L K and Giang V D 2000  Effect of different levels  of ensiled cassava roots in diets on performance and carcass quality of F1 (MCxLW) fattening pigs. Science & Technology Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 10, 441-443.

Wu J F 1991 Energy value of Cassava for young swine. Journal of Animal Science, 69, 1349-1353.

Wyllie D and Lekule F P 1980 Cassava and molasses for fattening pigs under village conditions in Tanzania. Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad, 57, 269-276.

Received 1 May 2012; Accepted 29 September 2012; Published 6 November 2012

Go to top