Local use and knowledge validation of fodder trees and shrubs browsed by livestock in Bushbuckridge area, South Africa

R M Chepape, K R Mbatha* and D Luseba

Tshwane University of Technology
Private Bag X680, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
* National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
lusebad@tut.ac.za

Abstract

Sustainable production of livestock usually involves efficient utilisation of locally available resources i.e. feed and remedies. Smallholder farmers rely on their visual observations and experiences in feeding and health management of livestock. The aim of this study was to identify and evaluate farmers’ knowledge on the utilisation of fodder trees and shrubs as livestock production resources. The ethnobotanical survey using a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions was conducted among livestock owners and keepers in the Bushbuckridge rural area of South Africa. Seventy five participants were interviewed, of which 41.3% were females and 58.7% were males.

Males aged over 40 years reported more browsed plants than females and young people. Limited participation of women in the survey was culturally related while young people had difficulty to accept the so-called outdated information. Cattle were predominantly kept, followed by goats. The study uncovered 32 browse plants belonging to 18 families. Fabaceae and Combretaceae families having six and five species, respectively, were predominant. Acacia nilotica, Carpobrotus edulis, Combretum hereroense, Dichrostachys cinerea, Diospyros mespiliformis, Ficus sycomorus, Mangifera indica, Terminalia sericea, Psidium guajava, Persea americana, and were reported in most of the locations. Some of the reported plants have been studied for their nutritive value and some are also used as ethnoveterinary remedies prompting the necessity for further investigations for the nutraceutical properties of browsed plants.

Keywords: combretaceae, ethnobotany, fabaceae, indigenous knowledge, nutraceutical

Introduction

Bushbuckridge is mostly a rural area, dominated by subsistence and small scale farming activities. Livestock rearing is considered as an occupation and source of income for the majority of resource-poor farmers in the area. Sustainable production of livestock usually involves efficient utilisation of locally available resources i.e. feed and remedies. Like most people living in the rural areas, especially the low income groups, people in this area rear livestock on diets consisting of high quantities of indigenous plants. Smallholder farmers rely on their visual observations and experiences in feeding and health management of livestock (Kavana and Msangi 2005). However, the low quality and quantity of available forages during the dry season are major constraints for improved livestock production in these areas. Like in many rural areas of South Africa, the available grazing is not generally sufficient to meet the maintenance requirements of grazing animals (Matlebyane et al 2010) during dry periods.

As a major source of animal feeds in Africa, fodder trees and shrubs are highly valued by farmers. Browses have multiple roles in farming systems such as feed, fire wood and as human and veterinary medicines (Luseba and Van der Merwe 2006). These forage species contain appreciable amounts of nutrients that are deficient in other feed resources such as grasses during dry seasons and dry periods. They have deep root systems enabling the extraction of water and nutrients from deep in the soil profile (Teferi et al 2008). Most browse plants have high crude protein content, ranging from 10 to more than 25% on a dry matter basis (Moleele 1998). This reliable protein resource can be used to develop a sustainable feeding system and increase livestock productivity.

Practices and knowledge of ethnobotany vary with socioeconomic level, geographical origin, age, gender, ethnicity, level of education and profession (Pfeifer and Butz 2005). Allem (2000) defined ethnobotany as “the biological, economic, cultural inter-relationship studies between people and plants in the environment which they exist”. It is an integral part of indigenous/local knowledge of a particular society (Osawaru and Danin-Ogbe 2010).

Osawaru 2010). Different communities have their own knowledge about plants and their uses. Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) referred to “ethny specific” characteristics of this local knowledge. Farmers have an impressive knowledge of browsed species. Involving farmers in the process of data collection is important because as potential users of new technologies to be developed, their knowledge and preferences are critical (Haugerud and Collinson 1990). However, some of the knowledge is liable to be distorted or lost completely if transfer is not done continuously.

The present study was conducted to describe the knowledge and utilisation of trees and shrubs as feed for livestock in the Bushbuckridge area and to document the results in order to prevent loss of information during oral transfer from one generation to another.

Material and methods

Study area

The study was conducted in Bushbuckridge Municipality. The study area (24° 49’ 60” S and 31° 4’ 0” E) is located in the South African lowveld vegetation, on the border between the Mpumalanga and Northern Limpopo provinces (Figure 1). The Kruger National Park is on the eastern border of Bushbuckridge, and the Limpopo Province borders northern edge of the municipality. Bushbuckridge receives about 860 mm of rain per year, with most rain occurring mainly during mid-summer (Wikipedia, 2011). The average midday temperature for Bushbuckridge range from 22°C in June to 28.3°C in January. The indigenous ethnic groups found in the Bushbuckridge municipality are Tsonga, Sotho (Pedi/Mapulana), Swati and Zulu.

Sampling Informants

The localities were selected based on different factors including:

• the topographical position i.e. Lillydale (north-east), Clare A (north), Violetbank (north-west), Calcutta (south-east), Alexandria (south) and Dwarsloop (centre) ;
• the distribution of different ethnical groups i.e. Pedi, Tsonga, Swati and Zulu;
• vegetation types : paralleling the rainfall gradient, two broad vegetation types are evident  Lowveld Sour Bushveld in the wetter west, grading to Lowveld towards the east (Acocks 1988);
• locality where the majority of livestock owners/keepers are found except the west region which is occupied by the Drakensberg escarpment.

Cultural differences affected the sampling methods with regards to gender; for instance there were a limited number of females in areas inhabited in majority by Swati and Zulu ethnical groups. However, we strived to interview people of different age group and gender. The number of participants was also limited by the willingness and the availability of the farmers. At each dipping tank, knowledgeable people were identified with the help of the local veterinary officers and the dipping tank chairpersons.  

Ethnobotanical data collection

The survey was conducted between June and September 2010. Individual interviews and focus group discussions were undertaken at the dipping tanks. These, together with field walks were done under the guidance of local farmers, local veterinarian and agricultural extension officers. The field walks were done to find and collect samples of plants reported during the interviews. Informant consent forms were available and read to the participants to build trust prior to the interviews.  Most of the farmers could not sign the consent forms since they were illiterate but accepted to participate in the study. Two questionnaires were used; one was for individual farmer/keepers and another for group focus discussions. Focus group discussions helped to triangulate the results from our own observations and individual interviews; this helped to harmonise the findings from individual interviews and helped to share the information. Results from individual participants were related to more general data emerging from the focus group discussions. Vernacular languages were used when talking to individual farmers and during the group focus discussions.

Issues related to the knowledge on trees and shrubs such as availability and acceptability by the animals were discussed during the interviews. Information on plant morphology and photographs of the plant samples were also taken during the field walk to facilitate identification. Plant samples were collected from each locality where they were reported. Immediately after collection, all voucher specimens were labelled and placed in the plant press according to Fish (1999). Plant identification was done at the University of Limpopo herbarium and confirmed at the University of Venda for Science and Technology by a plant taxonomist.

Socio-demographic description of respondents

A total of 75 livestock keepers/owners and local people with profound knowledge on plant species browsed were interviewed, of which 31 (41.3%) were females and 44 (58. 7%) were males (Table 1). However, there were more females than males in Violetbanks and Dwarsloop where the Pedi ethnic group was predominant.  

Figure 2. Frequencies of different ethnic groups from each sampling site

 The respondents were aged between 21 and 84 years. The largest group consisted of people aged over 40 years in all the sampled areas (Table 1). The majority of the respondents were pensioners and were more readily available during the time of survey than the group aged less than 40 years. Majority of the respondents were illiterate (63%).

Table 1. Gender, age and level of education of the respondents per location
		Gender		Age		Level of education
Locality	Resp.	Female	Male	21-40	> 40	N	P	S	T
Lillydale	10	3	7	0	10	5	2	3	0
Clare A	11	3	8	0	11	8	2	1	0
Violetbank	13	8	5	4	9	6	4	3	0
Calcutta	15	3	12	3	12	11	4	0	0
Alexandria	16	8	8	3	13	10	2	3	1
Dwarsloop	10	6	4	0	10	8	2	0	0
Total	75	31	44	10	65	48	16	10	1
Where N=None; P=Primary; S=Secondary; T=Tertiary

Statistical Analysis

Data analysis was performed using Microsoft Office Excel®, and descriptive statistics (percentages or proportions and frequencies) were presented.

Results and Discussion

Animal Husbandry

Livestock provides a livelihood to the majority of the people in Bushbuckridge. Cattle followed by goats and at a lesser extent pigs were kept in the area (Table 2), in average; farmers kept eight, three and one respectively. Chickens are kept under a strict backyard production system and are not recorded by the veterinary extension personnel. This compares with the findings of Tewe (1995) who reported cattle as the predominant domestic animal in West Africa, Van der Merwe et al (2001) among Tswana and with that of Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) among Tsonga speaking people. Similar to the results of Adekunle et al (2002), cattle in Bushbuckridge are also kept as a status symbol and cultural medium. Cattle play a major role in marriages, weddings, sacrifices and funerals. A lesser number of animals was kept by the respondents compared with the total herd in the area; for example, in Lillydale 1288 cattle were kept in the veterinary service records, however, only 9 (0.7%) were reported to be kept by the respondents. Out of 171 goats and 321 pigs in Lillydale, none of the respondents reported to keep pigs and goats (Table 2). This might indicate that the young and wealthier farmers rarely participate in such surveys and leave care of animals to the older and unemployed livestock herders. 

Table 2. Frequencies of livestock species in the area
Dipping tank	Veterinary service  records				Farm animals reported by respondents
	Farmers Number	Farm animals recorded
		Cattle	Goats	Pigs	Cattle	Goats	Chickens	Pigs
Lillydale	125	1288	171	321	9	0	4	0
Clare A	57	718	220	33	11	4	7	0
Violetbank	65	280	288	79	13	6	4	2
Calcutta	101	676	209	58	14	0	13	0
Alexandria	159	1077	577	64	12	4	7	0
Dwarsloop	103	642	214	8	6	2	4	1
Total	610	4681	1678	563	65	16	39	3

Knowledge and ethnobotanical important browsed species

Tsonga speaking people predominantly participated in the study (Figure 2). They were encountered in all the locations surveyed because Tsongas are predominantly found in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces. As pointed out by Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) ethnically, Tsongas are a minority group in South Africa and it is assumed that loss of tradition in a minority group is greater than in bigger groups. The Pedi ethnic group is reported to have no regulations on female involvement in livestock farming because they are generally accepted at the dipping tanks contrary to practice among other ethnical groups encountered (Zulu, Swati and Tsonga) where females were rarely present at the dipping tanks. As reported in other areas of South Africa (Cunningham and Zondi 1991) women generally do not keep large animals. According to Toledo et al (2009) cultural environments have a stronger influence than the natural environments on the use of medicinal and edible plants in rural communities. In spite of living in the same environments, different ethnic groups have their own knowledge and experience of utilising plant species.

Thirty one plant species belonging to 18 families were identified (Table 3). The plant families with more species were Combretacea and Fabaceae (five, six respectively). Fabaceae is made up of 730 genera and more than 19,000 species. Combretaceae occurs in both tropical and subtropical climates and consists of 20 genera in about 300 species with Combretum and Terminalia being the important (Eloff et al 2008) most used as fodders and EVM remedies (Dibungi Luseba, personal communication, 2011).

Table 3. Plants identified to be browsed by livestock in different location, their habitat, favoured plant part, animal species
Family and  Botanical name	Voucher No.	Common names	Habitat	Plant parts used	Animal species
Anacardiaceae, Mangifere indica L.	CS0053	Momango (S), Mango (E)	T	L	Goats, cattle
Apocynaceae, Carissa endulis vahl	CS0063	Mothokolo(S) Carandus plum(E)	S	L, F	Goats, cattle
Bignoniaceae, Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. Ex Kunth.	CS0016	Nembenembe (T) Yellow trumphet bush (E))	T	F	Cattle, goats
Cactaceae, Opuntia-ficus indica (L.) Mill.	CS0081	Xetorofeiye (S), prickly pear (E)	Crop plant		Goats, cattle
Celestraceae, Gymnosporia senegalensis  Lam.Loes	CS0057	Xehlangwa (T), Red spiked thorn (E)	S	L	Goats, cattle
Celestraceae, Peltophorum africanum Sond.	CS0077	Mpongankomo (SS), Nhlangwa (T) African wattle (E)	T	L	Goats
Chrysobalanaceae, Parinari curatefollifolia Planch.ex.Benth	CS0050	Mola (S), cock tree (E)	T	F, L	Cattle, goats
Combretaceae, Combretum erythrophyllum (Burch) Sond.	CS0025	Xitohana (T), River bushwillow (E)	S	L	Cattle, goats
Combretaceae, Combretum hereroense Schinz	CS0015	Skhabi (T), Russet-bushwillow (E)	S	L	Cattle, goats
Ebanaceae, Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst.ex.A.D.C	CS0037	Ntoma (T), Jackle berry (E)	T	L	Cattle, goats
Combretaceae, Terminalia sericea Burch ex D.C.	CS0047	Mosusu/Nkonolo (T) silver cluster leaf (E)	S	L	Goats, cattle
Combretaceae, Combretum zeyheri	CS0045	Mposa (T), large fruited bushwillow (E)	S	L	Goats, cattle
Ebenaceae,  Euclea natalensis A.D.C.	CS0024	umHlangula (T) Natal guarri (E)	S	L	Goats
Ebeneceae,  Euclea crispa (Thunb.) Gurke	CS0029	Nhlangula-nyare (T), Blue guarri (E)	S	F	Goats
Fabaceae, Acacia nilotica (L). wild.ex.Delile	CS0012	Shangwa (T), Scanted-pod acacia (E)	T	P	Cattle, goats
Fabaceae, Acacia sieberina DC.var. woodii	CS0021	Mganduse(S),paperbark thorn (E)	S	L	Goats, cattle
Fabaceae,  Bauhinia galpinii wild.ex.Delile	CS0010	Nkholokhotlo (S,T),Scented-pod acacia	T	P	Cattle goats
Fabaceae, Dichrostachys cinerea wight et Arn	CS009	Nzenga (T), moretshe (S),mzilazembe (SS), Sickle bush (E)	S	P	Goats, cattle
Fabaceae, Philenoptera violacea (Klotzsch) Schrire	CS0070	Sehomhom (SS), apple-leaf (E)	S	L	Goats, cattle
Lauraceae, Persea Americana Mill	CS0047	Mokhwathapeni (S), Avocado (E)	T	L	Goats, cattle
Loganiaceae, Strychnos punges Solered.	CS0033	Nkwakwa (T), spined leaved (E)	T	L	Goats, Cattle
Moraceae,  Ficus sycomorus  L.	CS0013	Nkuwa (T), Mkhiwa (SS), Sycamore fig (E)	T	L, F	Cattle, goats
Myrtaceae, Psidium gunjava L.	CS0020	Moguaba (P), Guava (E)	T	L	Goats, cattle
Myrtaceae, Syzygium cordatum Hochst.ex.C.Krauss	CS0058	Mohlu(S),Water berry(E)	T	F, L	Goats, cattle
Olacaceae, Ximenia caffra Sond.	CS0017	Mthonduluka (S) large sourplum (E	S	L	Cattle, goats
Rubiaceae, Vangueria infausta Burch. subsp. infausta	CS0017	Mphila (T) Mtula(Z)Wild medlara (E)	S	L	Cattle goats
Sterculuiaceae, Dombeya rotundifolia Hochst.	CS0028	Mbungelo (Z), Wild pear (E)	T	L	Goats, cattle
Combretaceae, Combretum collinum L.	CS0032	Nkuhlu (T) Bushwillow (E)	T	L	Cattle, Goats
Fabaceae, Acacia ataxacantha DC	CS0043	Senkaya (T), Flamethorn ( E)	S	L	Goats
Verbanaceae, Lantana camara L.	CS0041	Rentani (T), Lantana (E)	S	L	Goats
Vitaceae, Rhoicissus tridentate Wild and Drum	CS0051	Mbenzana (Z),Bitter grape (E)	S	L	Goats
Where T=Tree; S=shrub; L=leaves; P=pods; F=fruit;   S=Sepedi; SS=Swati; =Tsonga; Z=Zulu

The initial question of the interview about what farmers/keepers use to feed their livestock was abandoned since the practice was not common among informants in the area. Famers reported not to feed their livestock since it is possible to rear them on free-range, which is less costly and with less managerial involvement. The focus of the study was therefore shifted to their observation on livestock voluntary feeding.  Farmers reported the browsed species according to observed voluntary intake and subsequent animal performance of browsers on different fodder trees and shrubs. Dichrostachys cinerea was reported as the most preferred species by both cattle and goats. Local people generally recognise the trees and shrubs which are well appreciated by ruminants and their nutritive importance (Komwihangilo et al 2001).  

The plant species that were cited by more than two individuals in different locations are shown in Table 4. According to Kansonia and Ansay (1997) there is a consistency when one plant is cited for the same use by more than two respondents. In this study, 16 plants were reported by more than two individuals for the same utilisation (Table 4). Apart from high number of male participants in the survey, individual males showed to be more knowledgeable on the utilisation of browsed species than females. It was reported that males spent more time at the veld than females since females are also involved in other domestic chores. Contrary, it was reported that females in some other pastoral communities are sometimes more skilful than males in other aspects (Komwihangilo et al 2001). According to  Alonge and Alonge (2006) individual men and women in each new generation adapt and add to traditional knowledge and socio-cultural practices in a constant adjustment to changing circumstances and environmental condition.

Older people aged over 40 years reported to know more plants species browsed by livestock than young ones (Table 4). Several studies indicate that older people know more about plant uses than young ones (Benz et al 2000; Van der Merwe et al 2001; Latoya et al 2003). Our finding corroborates with the long-standing belief that only the elder people possess the knowledge and have a strong tendency to keep their knowledge secret. Generally, the traditional knowledge on the use of plant species is decreasing due to several reasons including change in approach towards a more western lifestyle and declining interest of younger generations to carry forward the tradition (Luseba and Van der Merwe 2006). This is a concern for knowledge transfer. Young people consider indigenous knowledge (IK) as outdated and farming is normally regarded as an old man’s job; they often associate IK with witchcraft (Dr Dibungi Luseba, personal communication, 2011). 

Dichrostachys cinerea was the most known shrub species as indicated by both gender and all age groups encountered (Table 4). In the Limpopo province, D .cinerea is ranked second as predominant fodder for livestock (Matlebyane et al 2010). Similarly the findings of Komwihangilo et al (1995) in Central Tanzania showed D. cinerea to be known and used by 40% of respondents. None of these studies has described the nutritional values of this plant species. It was reported to be favoured by goats and cattle in winter. However, local people cut it for other uses such as fire, wood and fences due to its structural defence mechanism, thorns that disturbs the growth of grasses during wet period (summer) and minimise the access of animals to grasses and forbs.

In dry seasons, when animals are on verge of starvation, conserved plants can be used. Unfortunately, fodder shrubs and trees are not cut for feeding animals in the study area.  Some farmers indicated that cutting plants is time consuming and laborious and they do not have enough storage space to keep the plant materials for feeding during dry seasons. However, the majority of the respondents did not know if this could add value to feeding practices during dry periods. Tshikudo et al (unpublished) reported contrary results with Venda speaking people who cut the plants part and feed their livestock during the dry season. Similarly to Tshikudo et al (unpublished) findings, Komwihangilo et al (1995) reported that some farmers in Central Tanzania collect pods of tree species and keep them at their homes for the purpose of feeding calves and sick animals which could not walk long distances in search of water and feed during the dry season.

The number of plants species cited in different locations is depicted in Table 5. Diospyros cinerea (41) followed by M. indica (15), T. sericea (13) and C. hereroense (12) were the most cited but D. mesipiiformis, P. americana, B. galpinii and A. nilotica are also important plant species in the area. The use of these browse species are relatively related to availability and preference by the animal species. Furthermore, the distribution, abundance and utilisation of these species were uniform in almost surveyed locations. The majority of these species retain leaves until late into dry season and the pods of species like D. cinerea and A. nilotica are available throughout the dry season.  It is of outmost important for livestock keepers/owners to prefer these species so that more feed could be supplied at critical times of the year. Leaves, pods, twigs, seeds, flowers were the plant parts reported to be browsed by livestock. However, leaves were the most preferred plant fraction utilized by livestock (Table 3) followed by fruits and pods compared with stems and seeds. The pods of D. cinerea and A. nilotica were reported to be favoured by both cattle and goats during the dry periods. According to Aganga and Tshwenyane (2003) the parts of trees that are commonly used as feed include leaves, tender shoots or twigs, fruits, pods and seeds.  In general, leaves are higher in crude protein than twigs, almost twice as much in the case of southern African browse (Walker 1980) indicating that livestock in the area have access to nutritious feed. Leaves also contain more crude protein on average than pods but the latter were found with higher organic matter and digestibility (Goehl 1981).  

Nutritional value and veterinary uses of some local fodder trees and shrubs

Leguminous species were found to contain 25 to 50% more crude protein than non-leguminous plants (Nitis 1989). Mokoboki et al (2005) reported the nutritional values, the type and amount of tannins of acacia tree foliage grown in the Limpopo Province (Acacia karroo, Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Acacia galpinii, Acacia sieberiana, Acacia hebeclada and Acacia rhemniana). All the acacia species had crude protein levels above 100 g/kg dry matter (DM), ranging from 103 g/kg DM for A. rhemniana to 183 g/kg DM for A. sieberiana. Crude protein (CP) levels of this magnitude in a diet are adequate to support the requirements of cattle, sheep and goats at low to medium production levels. Mokoboki et al (2005) concluded that all the species except A. galpinii, A. karoo and A. tortillis are of good nutritive value. Dichrostachys cinerea is a valuable fodder tree and there are various beneficial effects resulting from supplementing ruminants with D. cinerea. Smith et al (2005) reported improved performance of goats resulting from supplementation with D. cinerea fruits. Basha et al (2009) reported D. cinerea to have 123.2 g/kg CP, and low tannin content (57.9 g/kg).

The chemical composition of combretum species (C. apiculatum, C. molle and C.zeyheri) was well determined by Lukhele and Van Ryssen (2003). Mean values CP concentration varied from 92 g/kg DM for C. molle to 141 mg/kg DM for C. mopani. These values are comparable to those reported for acacia species (Mokoboki et al 2005). Ficus sycomorus is also among the identified browse species since it provides fruits and leaves during winter. Nutritional status of this species was determined by Nkafamiya et al (2010). Results obtained for proximate composition showed protein content of 17.24 ± 0, 71% and it has a high percentage of crude fibre (31.54 ± 0, 11%). They concluded that F.sycomorus can serve as a good source of nutrients.

 Diospyros mesipiiformis was found to have low levels of CP (5.46 g/kg) but high levels of total carbohydrates (77.21%) (Ezeagu et al 2002). Opuntia ficus indica was reported by few respondents. The fruits of O. ficus-indica contain carbohydrates (4-6%), protein (1-2%) and a moderate amount of vitamins A and C (Cantwell, 1991).

Protein (1-2%) and a moderate amount of vitamins A and C (Cantwal, 1991). However, Tegegne (2001) reported that the anti-nutritional characteristics such as spines, may affect nutritional value by limiting palatability and digestibility and so utilisation efficiency of semiscent species. 

Animal health problems are major constraints to livestock production in many countries, especially in the tropics (Etuk et al 2005). Cattle in Bushbuckridge have been exposed to Foot and Mouth disease due to the vicinity with the Kruger National Park. As noted by Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) for many decades, dipping to control ticks and other veterinary services have been provided free of charge (as compensation). These have contributed to the lesser use of ethnoveterinary medicines in this area.  However, this practice is somehow maintained in the area owing to the deep understanding of the world around them, otherwise a broader knowledge system which guides indigenous people in the management of resources within their ancestral land (Orticio, 2006).

From a study on ethnoveterinary medicine conducted simultaneously in the same area, it can be revealed that many of these plants have both nutritional and therapeutic properties. Food (or part of a food) that provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and/or treatment of a disease is referred to as nutraceutical (Kharb and Singh 2004). The term nutraceuticals was coined from “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice, MD, the founder and Chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM), in Cranford, New Jersey, United States of America (Kalra, 2003). For example, Dombeya rotundifolia was evaluated for its biological activity. It showed antibacterial and anthelmintics activities (MacGaw et al 2007).  Aqueous and organic leaf extracts of C. hereroense showed good activity in in vitro assays against the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (MacGaw et al 2001).

Members of combretacea have been extensively studied and shown to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (Martini, et al 2001; Katerere et al 2003; Eloff et al 2008). Several flavonoids, trriterpenoids, and stilbenoids have been isolated from Combretaceae and were shown to be biologically active (Alves et al 2010).  Leaves of C. erythrophorum reported by Martin and Eloff (1998) to have antimicrobial activity.

Maphosa et al (2010) reported that species from Fabaceae family are used to treat various animal diseases, ranging from bacterial diseases to conditions caused by internal and external parasites. Peltophorum africanum was reported by Bizimenyera et al (2005) to have anthelmintic and antioxidant activities. There is a need to assess these plants in order to give scientific evidence for their broad acceptance and use in traditional medicine. Table 6 shows some of browsed species that are cited in literature for medicinal purpose.  

Conclusion

• Livestock in Bushbuckridge depends on wild trees and shrubs as the main source of feedstuff during the dry season.
  
  
• Young individuals and females have less knowledge on fodder trees and shrubs compared with individuals older than 40 years of age and males.
  
  
• It is imperative that indigenous knowledge is documented and evaluated before it is lost.
  
  
• Laboratory work is important to determine forage quality in terms of nutrient content, and to develop feeding systems and rations to match livestock requirements for different production physiological stages mostly for dry seasons and will be conducted later in the current study.
  
  
• Further evaluation by biological assays and animal trials of the browsed species is also important to fill the gap in the knowledge and establish baseline information on feed resources available in small scale farming system.
  
  
• A systematic recording of the uses of the biodiversity by different ethnics is also required.

Acknowledgement

Authors acknowledge Tshwane University of Technology for funding the study. We are also grateful for the cooperation obtained from Veterinary Services (Bushbuckridge, Thulamahashe). The local farmers and livestock keepers are thanked for sharing their knowledge on browsed species.  Ms A. Satekge is thanked for her assistance during plant collection.  The gratitude is shown to Mrs B Egan and Dr Makwala P.W. from the University of Limpopo and Mr P. Tshisikhawe from the University of Venda for their assistance in identifying the plants.

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Received 6 February 2011; Accepted 11 May 2011; Published 19 June 2011

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