Pastoralists’ perception of the impact of East Coast fever on cattle production under extensive management in Northern Rift Valley, Kenya

Kipronoh K A*, Gathuma J M **, Kitala P M** and Kiara H K***

* Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, RRC-Perkerra, P.O. Box 32, Marigat, Kenya.
kkalexdoc@yahoo.uk
** University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya.
jmgathuma@uonbi.ac.ke   ;   pmkitala@uonbi.ac.ke
*** International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya.
h.kiara@cgiar.org

Abstract

A study using participatory epidemiology (PE) methodologies was conducted in West Pokot and Baringo districts, Northern Rift Valley, Kenya to assess the status of East Coast Fever (ECF) and obtain livestock keepers’ perceptions of how the disease impacts on their livelihoods.  A total of 658 livestock keepers comprising of 480 men and 178 women were invited to participate in community meetings held in twenty two purposively selected locations each in West Pokot and Baringo.  

Fifty six percent of the livestock keepers were from West Pokot while the remaining 54 percent were from Baringo District. Nearly all the households in both communities depended on cattle keeping as the major source of livelihood. The activity was ranked as priority enterprise by 96.2% and 93.3% of the groups in West Pokot and Baringo district respectively. Cattle diseases were identified as the main constraint affecting production and in particular, ECF and trypanosomosis were reported as the most important compared to other diseases. The informants were relatively consistent in estimating the impact of cattle diseases on derived benefits. There was good agreement among the various groups with coefficient of concordance (W) values ranging between 0.43 and 0.60 (p < 0:05 – p < 0.01). East Coast fever was found to have the greatest impact. Based on the findings from this study, there is need for stakeholders in the livestock industry to develop control strategies for ECF control that are supportive to the production system in a particular the region.

Keywords: ASALs, Constraints, Livelihoods, Livestock, Participatory epidemiology

Introduction

About 85% of the poor depend on agriculture to a greater or lesser extent (IFAD 2000). In the arid and semi arid regions livestock production is often the only economic activity to sustain the livelihoods of the rural poor. In Kenya, arid and semi arid lands (ASALS), currently account for 60% of the livestock, 3% of agricultural output, and 7% of commercial output (GoK 2004).  However, livestock production in these areas is at risk from a variety of constraints including a range of animal diseases, poor husbandry practices, inadequate nutrition and lack of adequate markets for livestock and their products (Rubaire et al 2004). Among the important diseases of cattle, tick-borne diseases (TBDs) especially East Coast fever (ECF), anaplasmosis, babesiosis and Ehrlichiosis are a major constraint particularly in the extensive cattle management areas (pastoral areas) (Otim 2000).

ECF, the focus of this study, causes half a million deaths annually in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda mostly among taurine cattle and their crossbreds where mortality can approach 100% (Di Giulio et al 2003). Although mortalities in indigenous cattle in endemic areas is believed to be low, calf growth is severely impaired during the course of the disease and over the recovery period (Moll et al 1984). Direct and indirect losses attributed to the disease are thought to be to be enormous, although very little information quantifying the actual losses especially in marginal areas is available. This study seeks to provide an understanding of the status of ECF and the impact of the disease on traditional herds for the improvement of control strategies.

Materials and Methods

Study areas

The study was conducted in West Pokot and Baringo districts of the Rift Valley province, Kenya. The study was preceded by a rapid appraisal (RA) in the form of an expert consultative meeting of veterinary field personnel from the study districts, regional laboratories, representatives of the departments of veterinary services and the authors.  The status of ticks and tick-borne diseases, acaricide use and resistance problems in the districts were presented. Tick-borne diseases were reported to be an important constraint to cattle production particularly in pastoral areas associated with the migratory nature of livestock keepers.

The study was conducted in the lowland agro-ecological zones of the study districts based on the classification by Jaetzold and Schmidt (1983). Agro-ecological zones (AEZs), are the major determinants of livestock production systems and suitability of the tick vector, and consequently level of disease risk, (Maloo et al 2001). Three administrative divisions in West Pokot district (Kacheliba, Kongelai and Chepareria) and two in Baringo district (Salawa and Barwessa) were purposively selected for the study based on their dominant agro-ecological zones,  accessibility, security and form information gathered during the rapid appraisal.(Figures 1-a and 1-b). A full list of all the villages in the study divisions were obtained from the administrative divisions in the study districts for developing a sampling frame. A total of 44 villages were randomly selected in both districts.  Table 1 summarises the number of villages in each division. Group discussions and key-informant interviews were conducted in 22 West Pokot and 22 Baringo villages in different sub-locations. The meetings were open to all interested livestock keepers, local leaders including women representatives in the villages. In total, 658 people (480 men and 178 women) participated in the discussions. A geographical positioning system (GPS) was used to record the coordinates of the villages where group discussions were held.

Figure 1(a). location of group meetings in Salawa and Barwessa divisions of Baringo district	Figure 1(b). location of group meetings in Kacheliba, Chepareria and Kongelai divisions of West Pokot district

Participatory appraisal study tools used 

The participatory appraisal tools used were adapted from the methods described by Catley and Mohammed (1996), Catley and Irungu (2000) and Catley et al (2002). The interviews were conducted by trained teams comprising of a facilitator, a translator and a recorder.

Semi structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were used at every stage of the participatory appraisal exercises. The interviews were conducted in the local language through a guided conversation on pre-determined topics in a check list were discussed using open ended questions. Probing was used to ask supplementary questions to ensure an in-depth exploration of the topics and to clarify responses and provide a better understanding of the community perspectives and experiences on issues of interest. The interviews were used to generate information regarding the main livelihood sources for livestock keepers, species of livestock kept, constraints to livestock production and detailed description of major diseases affecting their cattle.

Proportional piling, ranking and scoring

Proportional piling was used in combination with ranking and scoring exercises to generate information on livestock species kept, income and other benefits from livestock, as well as identify important cattle diseases and estimate disease incidences as well as morbidity and mortality patterns in various cattle age groups. A simple ranking exercise using counters was employed when discussing the general sources of livelihood, preferred livestock types/species and constraints encountered in livestock husbandry with the most salient of the above being ranked highest. Livestock keepers were asked to list important cattle diseases in the area and provide descriptions of clinical signs and post mortem findings, the local name for the disease and views on epidemiology, treatment and control. These descriptions were used to establish the likely English translation of the disease based on expert descriptions of the diseases. Sketches of animals showing  the main symptom (s) of the diseases listed or in some cases parasites associated with the  disease were made on pieces of cards for use as ‘labels’ to confirm the disease under discussion. The drawings were done jointly by the facilitator and the livestock keepers to ensure that they understood the meaning and to encourage active participation of all members in the discussion. Participants were given 100 counters (beans) and asked to divide those according to the importance of the diseases listed based on their severity or frequency of occurrence. The exercise was conducted in thirteen groups with an average of 11 participants, both men and women. A total of 140 informants participated in the exercise.

Disease impact matrix scoring

The method was used to measure the impact of the diseases perceived as important by the livestock keepers on the benefits derived from cattle. Diseases impact matrix scoring method involves a two stage proportional piling.  The benefits derived from cattle were listed on the x-axis. Respondents were asked to rank them through proportional piling.  Next respondents were asked to list the diseases they had previously reported as important on the y-axis.  They were then asked to rank the effect of the diseases on the benefits by sub-dividing the scores assigned to each benefit to indicate how the diseases affected the various benefits. The exercise was conducted in eleven groups with a total of 155 informants.

Key informant interviews

Key informant interviews were held with individuals who have specialist knowledge of livestock production including livestock diseases. Interviews were held with the District Veterinary Officers and Divisional Veterinary Officers in both districts. Livestock traders and dealers inveterinary drugs were interviewed on different diseases found in animals at the markets. Livestock keepers’ were also interviewed on the types and reasons for buying drugs. A total of 10 key informant interviews were conducted.

Data Handling and Analyses

Data collected were transferred from field notebooks to a database, collated and stored in Microsoft excel and later exported to SPSS system for windows Version 12.0.1. Analyses were undertaken using descriptive statistical procedures involving frequencies, means and median score estimation. Agreement between informant groups was assessed using Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W), (SPSS 1999) and were categorized as ‘weak’ for W values less than 0.26, ‘moderate’ for values between 0.26 and 0.38; ( p < 0:05 ) and ‘good’ for values greater than 0.38; (p < 0:01 to <0.001) respectively, according to critical values for W provided by Siegel and Castellan (1994).

Results

Livelihood sources

The most important livelihood sources were reported to be livestock keeping, crop farming, small scale businesses and bee keeping. Households in both communities depended largely on livestock as the major source of livelihood. The enterprise was ranked as a priority by 96.2 % (25/26) and 93.3% (14/15) of the groups in West Pokot and Baringo districts, respectively (Table1). Crop farming was ranked as the second most important livelihood activity after livestock by both communities mainly as a supplement of household economy. Crop farming was mainly practised along the major rivers; Suam in West Pokot and Kerio River in Baringo Districts. The rest of the region was too dry to support meaningful crop agriculture. The major food crops grown included; Maize, sorghum, millet and beans.  Small scale business involving buying and selling of livestock as well as trading in livestock products such as milk and meat was ranked third in importance. The purpose for trade was to get money for purchasing cereals and livestock inputs especially drugs and other household expenses as well as paying of school fees. Bee-keeping was also reported as an important activity.

Perceptions of constraints affecting livestock production

The major constraints affecting livestock keeping were reported to be livestock diseases, shortage of feed, lack of water/distant watering points, insecurity, wildlife menace and poor markets (Table 1). Vector-borne diseases, particularly tick-borne (ECF and heartwater) and trypanosomosis were reported to seriously limit livestock production in the region.

Knowledge of diseases of economic importance

Livestock keepers listed common cattle diseases in the area and provided descriptions of clinical signs and post-mortem findings, their local names, views on epidemiology, treatment and control. These descriptions together with inputs from key informants were used to establish the likely English translation of the disease. In general, there was less knowledge of aetiology among the livestock keepers in West Pokot than in Baringo District.

Figure 2. Important cattle diseases determined by proportional piling exercises in different group meetings in West Pokot and Baringo districts

East Coast fever was consistently reported as the most serious and frequent disease by both communities. The disease (locally known as lokit (or yit) by the Pokot and cheptigon by the Tugen community) was associated with swollen lymphnodes, deep cough, anorexia, lachrimation, nasal discharge and bloody diarrhoea as common signs. There was some argument on the causes of ECF among the groups. Some of the reported causes are shown in table 2.

 Livestock keepers were able to give a differential diagnosis of ECF with trypanosomosis which was also seen as a common cattle disease but seasonal in occurrence. The disease, locally known as plis by the Pokot and esse by the Tugen, had distinct pathognomonic clinical presentations that could not be confused with those of ECF. These included progressive emaciation, abortion in pregnant animals, offensive smell and loss of hair from the tail switch. The carcass from animals dying of trypanosomosis was described as “watery” with very little blood unlike that of ECF. Trypanosomosis was commonly associated with bushes and in particular tsetse fly (locally known as Tabirwak by the Pokot and Soisoiyon by the Tugen) as the main vector of disease.

Perception of impact of ECF on cattle benefits

Benefits derived from cattle were ranked in order of importance and the impact of ECF was assessed relative to other diseases of economic importance.  In all groups in both districts, milk was ranked highest because it was reported to be a source of food for all members of the family, especially children and the aged. Income from sales of cattle was important for household purchases and payment of school fees and dowry, among other uses. Among the Pokot, live cattle were valued more than cash as a means of payment of dowry. However, the Tugen valued cash for use as dowry more than actual cattle. In both districts cattle were rarely slaughtered for meat although it was given a higher rank in Baringo than West Pokot. Manure was reportedly used by some households for crop farming but this was not a major activity in the region. Hides were not perceived as a major benefit n both districts. A summary of the matrix of of the impact of diseases on benefits from cattle is presented in Table 3. ECF exerted the greatest impact on benefits relative to other diseases. The disease frequently featured in all the matrices completed and highly affected all the cattle derived benefits indicating a higher relative importance of the disease. The disease also affected other cattle derived benefits including cash, dowry, meat, manure and hides but to a smaller extent than milk. Except for trypanosomosis, the other diseases such as ephemeral fever were reported to be either seasonal or rare in occurrence and their individual effects on cattle benefits were of little importance compared to those of ECF.

Discussion

The present study created an open and dynamic interactive opportunity between the research team and livestock keepers. The opportunity was important in understanding livestock production systems and challenges facing pastoralists and in addition appreciating community perceptions of East Coast fever and other important vector-borne disease occurrences in the Northern Rift Valley, Kenya. The choice of Pokot and Tugen communities to participate in the exercise was based on their economic dependence on livestock, cultural beliefs and practices and the nature of their ecological setting, typical for pastoral and agro-pastoral systems. The pastoralists were delighted to openly discuss problems affecting livestock and give their epidemiological perspectives of the various cattle diseases common in their areas. This revealed the vast reserve of knowledge possessed by the communities and was indeed a learning session for both the researchers and livestock keepers. Results from the various PE exercises were arrived at by consensus-based decisions among the key informants and validation of information was made by cross-checking results from the different methods and sources. This process has been termed triangulation (Denzin 1979).

The logical approach was adapted from participatory epidemiology (PE) methods described by Catley and Mohammed (1996). Attempts to get understandings of local epidemiological conditions through participatory techniques (Catley and Mariner 2002), have often been dismissed as poor science.  But the approach has been found useful by other co-workers (Catley and Irungu 2000 and Catley et al 2002), and particularly suitable for investigating animal health problems particularly in arid and semi-arid areas with highly mobile herds and insecure pastoral settings characterised by poor infrastructural network and high levels of illiteracy. Under such conditions, conventional veterinary investigations and epidemiological methods would have been constrained by the severe operational and resource limitations.  In southern Sudan and Somalia for example, participatory epidemiology tools were useful in modeling rinderpest transmission and the impact of different vaccination strategies on the probability of disease eradication (Catley and Mariner 2002), and analysis of this relied upon the direct input of livestock owner’s knowledge.

In the present study, a number of constraints affecting livestock production were identified. Overall, livestock diseases were ranked as the main problem faced by the livestock keepers in the region. The results compare with the findings obtained in a similar study conducted in Marsabit District by Njanja et al 2003. While discussing on the effects of cattle diseases on benefits, the various groups involved demonstrated good agreement among the informants. East Coast fever was reported to exert the greatest impact on benefits relative to other diseases since it occurred more frequently with high mortality in the herd.

The participants’ perception of low mortality associated with diseases like trypanosomiosis was attributed to the widely available drugs and favourable response to treatment compared to ECF. Heartwater, ephemeral fever, babesiosis contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBBP, anaplasmosis and Lumpy skin disease (LSD), were less common and hence the low mortality associated with the occurrence of these diseases in the herds. Radley et al (1981) observed that ECF caused a reduction in productivity and was also costly because of the money and time spent on tick control. The finding from this study provides baseline information on the status of the disease in the region and is expected to provide a basis for detailed investigations to be undertaken in future. The information is important in formulation of extension messages targeting TBD control and drawing of an action plan for ECF control in pastoral areas.  The immediate challenge is to improve on field extension and animal health delivery services in the region through the integration of the livestock keepers’ indigenous technical knowledge and modern concepts of disease occurrence, transmission dynamics and prevention to facilitate uptake of current recommendations for control of the disease and the associated causative agents in order to promote livestock productivity and sustainability in marginal areas.

 Conclusion

• The data collected during this study was subjected to a limited level of randomization and supported by collection and testing of key biological samples including serum, blood smears and tick specimens for identification and examination and results compared by a process of triangulation. The use of a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods was expected to reduce the concerns about the reliability and validity of the results. Although the results were within the range reported in many conventional studies they were dependent on the livestock keepers’ ability to diagnose and remember episodes of occurrence and their knowledge on symptoms of diseases which was subject to recall and person bias. It would be interesting to compare the results obtained during this study with those from exercises repeated with many group discussions and key informants with varying degrees of knowledge in order to ensure a more accurate estimate of impact ECF in extensive cattle production systems. Equally, there is need to conduct well structured epidemiological studies to get a more accurate estimate of the disease.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the livestock keepers, local administrators, District Veterinary Officers and field extension staff and all the research assistants for their commitment during data collection process. The study was accomplished through financial support from Gandhi Smarak Nidhi Fund Trust, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), ASARECA-Animal Agriculture Research Netwok (A-AARNET) and Association of African Universities (AAU).

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Received 7 May 2010; Accepted 7 January 2011; Published 19 June 2011

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