Livestock feed resources: Current production and management practices in central and northern rift valley provinces of Kenya

B Lukuyu*, S Franzel*, P M Ongadi* and A J Duncan**

International Livestock Research Institute, P.O Box 30709 00100, Nairobi Kenya
b.lukuyu@cgiar.org   /   s.franzel@cgiar.org   /   p.mudavadi@cgiar.org   /   a.duncan@cgiar.org
* World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), P.O Box 30677 00 100, Nairobi, Kenya
** International Livestock Research Institute, P.O Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abstract

Smallholder dairy farmers in developing countries face many feed constraints such as inadequate feed quality and quantity, poor storage facilities for feed conservation as well as insufficient water. However, feeding of livestock continues to pose many problems due to lack of information on composition and utilization of locally available feed resources. These problems are aggravated by lack of access to and high cost of feed inputs. The use of cheap and readily available local feed resources has great potential to increase livestock productivity. The East African Dairy Development project in Kenya, through use of various participatory rapid appraisal tools conducted a rapid appraisal study of three project areas. The objective was to assess feeds and feeding practices in smallholder dairy systems, identify feed resources available year round and where the gaps are as well as to determine what practices are available for improving production and utilization of feed resources in order to raise smallholder dairy production.

Established opportunities for improvement include on-farm production and utilization of fodder, efficient storage, processing and utilization of crop residues, pasture improvement, appropriate water harvesting technologies, formulation of feed rations amongst small scale farmers, small scale feed conservation as well as development of fodder markets. Given the complex farming system within which smallholder farmers operate, changes are needed in both the technologies used for improving feeds and feeding systems and in the institutional and policy arrangements surrounding feed supply. In addition, technical interventions need to be developed in a participatory manner along with farmers and other stakeholders within the system to make them relevant and sustainable.

Key words: dairy, forage fodder livestock, livelihoods

Introduction

An adequate supply of livestock feed is crucial to the livelihoods of millions of people across the developing world, and not just for smallholders, but also for pastoralists and the large number of landless who depend mainly on common land for grazing (Sanford and Ashly 2008). In Africa and other developing countries feeds and feeding comprise 60-70% of total production costs (Madubuike 1993). With the present trend of rising feed stuff prices and global inflation, livestock production is increasingly constrained by feed scarcity and the high cost of feeds (Ayantunde et al 2005). Shortages of feeds and forages are especially acute during the dry season. Much research attention has been devoted to feed problems and solutions and optimal feeding practices (Lukuyu et al 2009; Lenne and Wood 2004) but there has been relatively little systematic consideration of the constraints smallholders face, the feeding strategies and coping mechanisms they use, and the ways scientific knowledge and indigenous technical knowledge can be combined to help the farmers improve livestock productivity and livelihoods. Small farmers operate complex systems, allocating their scarce resources across many different enterprises (Sand 1986; Collins 1982). They are rarely able to manage any single enterprise in the "optimal" manner prescribed by researchers. Rather, they make compromises in the management of individual enterprises in order to reduce risk, alleviate resource constraints, and meet household needs. The challenge to researchers is to work with farmers to identify improved practices that improve productivity and are feasible, profitable and acceptable for farmers to adopt. The objective of this paper is to assess the feeds and feeding practices in smallholder dairy systems, identify feed resources available year round and where gaps exist. A further aim was to determine what practices are available for improving production and utilization of feed resources in order to raise smallholder dairy production.

Methodology

A rapid reconnaissance survey was conducted to identify constraints and opportunities in feeds and feeding practices in Kenya. The study was undertaken in two steps; firstly a rapid rural appraisal was conducted involving discussion with small groups of farmers and through interviews with opinion leaders in selected sites. Secondly, a total of 341 households from four study sites were sampled to determine the types of feeds resources currently being used on farms. We gathered information on livestock feeds and feeding such as:

• Livestock production characteristics e.g. herd structure, milk production, calf rearing and farm storage

• Forage and feed inventory issues e.g. types of feeds including contribution of grazing, their sources, farmers’ perceptions of sufficiency and coping strategies

• Farmer innovations in fodder production and marketing, feed conservation, and feeding practices

• Feeds and feeding information sources and gaps

• Forage and feed production constraints

 Study sites

The study sites comprised North Rift Valley Province, South Rift Valley Province and Central Province in Kenya (Table 1). Two farmer groups were interviewed in each province. Farmers were mobilized through the help of government extension workers in each site. During mobilization emphasis was placed on the need for gender balanced groups.  Farmers were gathered on a volunteer’s farm in each group. In all sites farmer turnout ranged from 20 – 125 farmers and comprised both registered and unregistered members belonging to different farmer groups. Dissemination facilitators and extension workers collected information through informal discussion meetings with groups of farmers.

Results and discussion

Farming systems

The land use, herd structure and milk production in all study sites are shown in Table 4. The most common cattle feeding systems are (i) pure grazing system where cattle graze freely on public land or on private land in paddocks or tethered, (ii) grazing with some stall feeding where cattle are mainly grazed but supplemented with extra gathered feeds overnight in stalls, (iii) stall-feeding with some grazing where cattle are mainly confined but occasionally allowed to graze and (iv) pure stall-feeding also known as ‘zero-grazing’ where cattle are fed in total confinement. These systems were practiced at different levels across the all study sites depending on land sizes and types of other enterprises practiced on farms. Generally pure grazing with some stall feeding systems were practiced in extensive and semi-intensive dairy production systems while zero grazing was associated with intensive systems.

The grazing system was the most common in the North Rift region except in Chepkorio where most dairy farmers kept their cattle mainly under stall feeding with some grazing. This may be due to smaller land sizes in Chepkorio (average of 3 acres). Stall feeding was not common in the North Rift region largely because production and use of planted fodders was limited in most areas where labour rather than land is the limiting factor to fodder production. Zero grazing seemed to be less practiced in labour intensive tea growing areas. In central Kenya farmers are shifting away from the extensive and less productive grazing systems. Trends in most study areas revealed an increasing shift towards stall feeding with some grazing. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) was the main basal feed resource in stall fed feeding systems.

The major crops grown in the North Rift region comprised of beans, sweet potatoes, sorghum, cassava, Irish potatoes, vegetables and a variety of horticultural crops while the main cash crops included tea and pyrethrum mainly grown in Kabiyet and Lelan respectively. In this region, maize which occupies about 75% of the land is usually grown both as a source of cash income and household food. Hence crop residues from maize form an important proportion of the livestock feed resource. Farmers ranked the dairying enterprise second to maize production. In the South Rift region, the main crops grown were maize, beans, sweet potatoes, bananas, sorghum and finger millet, Irish potatoes, vegetables and a variety of horticultural crops. Tea and pyrethrum are major cash crops in Longisa, Cheborge and Cheptalal while coffee is grown in Longisa and Kipkelion. In central Kenya the main crops grown are maize, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, sorghum, vegetables and a variety of horticultural crops.

Most study sites experience a single long rainy season in a year which falls between March and November. However, some areas of South and North Rift Valley have a short rainy season between September and December. Regions with a long rainy season experience a dry season between December and February while those areas with a short rainy season experience a dry season from September to October.

Herd structure and milk production

In the North Rift region cattle herd size varied between intensive and semi-intensive systems. For example, herd sizes ranged from 5-8 in the extensive systems and 1- 100 in the extensive grazing systems.  Individual herd size depends, however, on an individual farmer's financial resources and his/her management capabilities (Hayani-Mlambo et al 1998). If these are inadequate there then there is likelihood that overgrazing may occur within the system.

Dairy cattle herds in all study sites comprised mainly Friesian and Aryshire cross-bred cattle. These were preferred by majority of the farmers due to their high milk production potential. Very few pure-bred dairy animals were kept probably due to limited feed supply, especially in the dry season, and to poor farmer husbandry skills. These two factors resulted in reportedly high mortality rates of pure-bred cattle. In all areas, farmers kept very few zebu cattle; oxen were kept for draught power in some areas.

Overall, herds were composed of mostly adult cows, which together with the heifers and calves accounted for nearly three quarters (75%) of the animals in the herds (Tables 4). Bulls and oxen formed an average of 29% of the herd in all areas. There seemed to be both female and male calves in herds in all areas, suggesting that male calves did not leave the herd until after weaning. It is important to note that herd composition was very diverse in all study sites and especially in areas where land was not a constraint.

Milk Production

The average milk production per cow per day was relatively low and variable across all sites (Table 3). Farmers attributed this to inadequate feeding of dairy cattle due to feed scarcity. The lowest milk production was reported in Lelan in the North Rift valley where farmers owned larger areas of land and had larger herds. This could be attributed to the low input grazing feeding strategy adopted by these farmers. On the other hand, average milk production was high in other areas of the North Rift Valley where feed production systems are based on high input feeding strategies such as planted forages and purchased concentrate feeds.

Calf Feeding

Small scale dairy farmers in all study sites used varied milk feeding schedules for calves (Table 4). Most farmers were not aware of recommended calf feeding schedules. According to recommendations calves should be fed 15% of their birth weight of milk each day (Osuji et al 1995; Lanyasunya 2006).  Based on this recommendation it was evident that most farmers were under feeding calves (feeding 7-10% of birth weight) leading to poor growth rates in most areas.  Low milk production by dams was probably the most important constraint to optimum calf feeding. Hence farmers allow calves to suckle for only few seconds before and after milking. The situation is aggravated by competition between household milk consumption and sale of milk. Small scale dairy farmers in Kipkelion reported high mortality rates when calves were bucket fed. This could be attributed to the use of plastic containers that are prone to harboring bacteria to feed calves.

The majority of small scale dairy farmers in all study sites left calves to graze freely on natural pastures during the day. This exposes calves to risks of increased endo-parasite burdens (Nansen et al 1990; Sarkunas et al 2004). However, a few farmers supplemented grazing calves with roughages such as Napier grass, hay, crop residues such as green maize stover and vegetable waste such as cabbage, kales, pumpkin leaves and Irish potato peels. A few farmers offered two handfuls per calf per day of dairy meal while a few others offered two handfuls of early weaner pellets daily. Feeding salt and water to calves was common.

On farm feed resources

In all study sites, 53, 34, 41 and 34% of the households in Siongiroi, Metkei, Kabiyet and Kaptumo respectively relied on natural pastures as a source of feed (Figure 1). Many farmers in all study sites have set aside patches of land for grazing on their own land in addition to off farm grazing. However, most grazing land comprises unimproved natural pastures. Unimproved pasture species comprised mainly mixtures of grasses e.g. Kikuyu, star, couch and wire grasses. Farmers noted that wire grass was tough and unpalatable and damaged animals’ teeth. It was only eaten during dry seasons when no other forage was available. Grazing hours varied between 5 – 9 hours depending on season and feeding system (i.e. stall feeding with some grazing or grazing entirely).

Napier grass is the most common fodder planted by 28, 15, 18 and 24% of the households in Siongiroi, Metkei, Kabiyet and Kaptumo respectively. Farmers reported giving additional forage or supplements to dairy cattle. However, additional forage varied across farms and sites depending on season and farm productivity. Generally more forage was offered during the wet season than during the dry season. For example, many farmers reported offering a head load of Napier grass (equivalent to 35kg fresh weight) to each milking cow during the wet season but this was reduced by half during the dry season. 

Crop by products formed a large proportion of feed resources available especially during the dry season being fed by 11, 20, 36 and 40% of the households in Siongiroi, Metkei, Kabiyet and Kaptumo respectively. Crop by products included maize stover, wheat straw and bean haulms. Other dry season residues were banana pseudostems, vegetable waste and weeds. Crop residues are readily available but of poor quality. However, an advantage to using crop residues is that the cost to produce them is generally attributed to the production of the grain or marketable product. Crop residues commonly have metabolisable energy (ME) values of 5-7 MJ ME/kg dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) values of the order of 2-5% (Smith 2002). Under current conditions reported by farmers, crop residues are left to stand in the field post-harvest where they lose leaves prior to being cut. Even following cutting and stacking they tend to be stored outdoors resulting in further nutrient losses. These losses could be reduced by cutting material soon after harvest and storing under cover (Owen and Aboud 1998). In most study sites, maize stovers and other crop by products are often fed whole and this limits intake. Mechanical chopping can considerably reduce the intake constraint for animals fed large amounts of crop residues (Methu 1998). Another useful strategy is to integrate crop residues with forage legumes to improve rumen microbial degradation of crop residues by supplying nitrogen to the rumen and hence increasing digestibility and therefore intake of poor quality residues (Smith et al 1990). A similar effect can be achieved by feeding small amounts of a naturally occurring high protein supplement such as soybean, cottonseed and sunflower meals to maximize animal performance (NRC 1985). Most feed resources for both the wet and dry seasons feeding were sourced on-farm in all areas. A few farmers purchased feed such as hay, dairy concentrates and fodder especially during the dry season.

Other feed resources were maize fodder trees e.g. Leucaena spp., Sesbania spp. or Calliandra spp. reported especially in Metkei (14% of farms) and up to 2% of farms in Siongiroi. Only a few farmers (4-9%) grew herbaceous legumes such as Lucerne, Desmodium etc because they dried up in the dry season. This could probably be due the low yield and lack of persistence during the dry season, (Kabirizi et al 2004). Persistence is an important attribute of forage legumes that determines their use as permanent pastures. Oat (Avena sativa) was also grown and used in a few high altitude areas. Other types of feeds reportedly used on farms were Sudan grass and Sorghum vulgare var. sudanense. Rhodes grass was mostly fed in loose hay form.

Figure 1: A comparison of available feed resources in different study sites

On-farm feed supplementation and rations formulation

Low concentrate feeds use was reported in all study sites. For example, only 1, 5, 10 and 23% of the farmers reported using dairy concentrates in Siongiroi, Metkei, Kabiyet and Kaptumo respectively. Farmers attributed low usage of concentrates to unreliable quality and the perceived high cost of the dairy meal. Use of concentrates was reported to increase during the dry season.  Most farmers mixed their own ‘home made’ supplementary feeds using a variety of locally available feed ingredients.  They also used individual feed ingredients to supplement dairy cattle.

Most farmers supplement milking cows at a given flat rate of 2 kg per cow per day (1 kg morning and evening) regardless of the animal’s body condition. These low rates may result in under-nutrition in the early part of the lactating cycle and affect milk production throughout the lactation (Broster and Strickland 1977; Johnson 1984). Feeding higher amounts of concentrate in early lactation has been shown in Kenya to increase lactation milk yield by 20% (Romney et al 2000). However, credit availability is a constraint to the purchase and feeding of more concentrates in early lactation. In all areas, concentrates and feed ingredients were sourced commercially from agro-vet shops, dairy cooperatives, or feed manufacturers supplying major towns. Prices of concentrates and feed ingredients fed were variable in all study areas depending on distance from source. Only lactating dairy cows were fed concentrate feeds.

Molasses was mainly mixed with ‘home made’ rations or sprinkled on low quality roughage such as maize stover during the dry season and fed to all classes of dairy cattle. This practice is highly recommended since it improves palatability and provides the required energy for enhances microbe activity in the rumen. Low quality crop residues do not have large amounts of available energy to provide optimum microbe activity to digest fibre efficiently (Van Soest 1982). Thus, use of molasses with crop residue is encouraged to maximize animal performance.

In addition to concentrates some farmers also fed a number of ground crop products produced from their own farms such as ground bean haulms (10-12% CP), ground maize grain unfit for human consumption (8-10% CP), ground maize stover (4-8 % CP), ground maize on cobs (6-7% CP), ground Rhodes grass (10% CP) and vegetable waste (12% CP). These are sacked for storage and used especially during the dry season. These are usually mixed into ‘home made’ rations with varying mixtures from farm to farm. For example in Kipkaren and Kabiyet, farmers reported that it was costly to grind a sack of maize stover, maize grain or cobs for feeding livestock.  It costs Kshs 200-300 to have a sack of maize stover, maize grain or cobs ground. Many small scale dairy farmers are unable to afford this. Farmers used a variety of mineral salts available on the market, for example common stock “magadi” salt, high phosphorous and ‘maclick’ super.

Feed conservation

In all surveyed sites, farmers reported low milk production and high milk prices during the dry season due to feed scarcity and low quality feeds. Further, most dairy farmers did not conserve feeds for use during the dry season. The concept of feed conservation seemed entirely new to most farmers. Farmers expressed the need to be equipped with low input conservation technologies such as box baling (Massawe et al 1998) or making tube silage (Methu and Mbuthia 2005) to conserve feeds for dry season feeding.

Farmers’ perceptions of constraints

Insufficient water for both cattle and household consumption was reported as the most limiting constraint in most study sites (Table 5). In some areas, farmers reported walking cattle for long distances (between 3-10 km) in search of water. In no areas did dairy farmers report using piped water. Most farmers reported accessing water from on-farm shallow wells that sometimes dry up in the dry season. A few farmers reported watering cattle or collecting water from nearby rivers. Some farmers in central Kenya reported buying water from private pumps. Lack of information on appropriate feed technologies was the second most important factor limiting dairy cattle farmers from producing sufficient feeds hence contributing to dry season feed scarcity. Key types of information that were lacking included information about feed storage and conservation, fodder and pasture establishment, management and utilization (Table 6). Lack of cash to produce and purchase feeds; seed unavailability and the high cost of farm inputs were also cited. Limited land and labour to produce feeds was reported in tea growing areas.

Farmers’ dry season coping strategies and potential solutions to feed shortages

Coping strategies that farmers used during the dry season are summarized in (Table 7). Farmers in almost all study sites commonly fed crop residues such as dry maize stover, bean haulms, sorghum and finger millet stovers and wheat straw. Farmers deliberately underfed dairy cattle during dry season through ‘feed rationing'. However they rationed feed depending on milking or pregnancy status of dairy cows. Low milk productivity during the dry season is therefore mainly due to under-feeding (Agenas et al 2003). Farmers identified the need to widen the feed resource base by introducing high quality forage varieties (both grasses and legumes), besides increasing acreage under planted fodders.

Farmers gather off farm feeds mainly by harvesting grass from the roadside, forest reserves and other public land and transporting it back to the farm. This practice has both labour and transport cost implications depending on distances. Farmers also pointed out the need to improve their skills in managing natural pastures well. In most study sites some farmers purchase feeds such as cut grass, Napier grass, hay and in a few cases silage. Farmers felt challenged on the importance and benefits of developing fodder trade.

In a few areas, farmers increased the amount of commercial or ‘home made’ dairy concentrate fed during the dry season. However this has cash flow implications meaning it can only be practiced by farmers who can afford to do so. Road side, river bank and public land grazing was common in most areas especially those bordering large forests. This practice increases the risk of tick borne disease and parasites (Nansen et al 1990). In most study sites farmers tended to give animals more water and common salt (in a few cases mineral lick) during the dry season. Grazing cattle consume more than twice as much as those fed on dry feeds such as crop residues (NAS 1976).Thus use of common salt in the dry season is encouraged since it is an effective and economical way of supplementing diets with sodium and chlorine (NAS 1976). In central Kenya farmers grew maize in different stages for feeding cattle during the dry season. Destocking was not a common practice.

Conclusions and recommendations

 Given the complex farming system within which smallholder farmers operate, changes are needed in both the technologies used in feeds and feeding systems and in the institutional and policy arrangements.  In the area of technical solutions, a number of advances need to be considered in order to improve feed productivity and sufficiency on small-holder dairy farms.

• There is a need to strengthen on farm feed production by introducing alternative high yielding planted fodders (both grasses and legumes) (Dzowela 1988; Lenne and Wood 2004) and also fodder trees and shrubs (Paterson et al 1999; Franzel et al 2003) to ensure adequate quantity and quality of feed for dairy animals throughout the year. However, the success of this will depend on enhanced delivery of the seeds, planting material, and technical information to farmers.
  
  
• Development of dairy concentrates or complete feeds can greatly benefit small-holder farmers. This can be achieved through introducing, supporting and building capacity on formulation of feed rations amongst small scale farmers. Existing dairy concentrates are costly and of unreliable quality so one option would be to prepare a certified concentrate feed that could gain the trust of farmers. Another option would be to concentrate on agro-industrial by products such as wheat/maize bran, cottonseed cake or other protein/energy sources available in the region and provide simple rations that farmers can mix on farms. A promising alternative supplementation strategy is the use of urea molasses blocks. These provide supplementary non-protein nitrogen in a simple off-the-shelf package and can be locally produced.
  
  
• Simple feed processing strategies and methods for feed storage will help to enhance utilization of crop residues and hence help to alleviate dry season feed shortages. This can be achieved through the introduction of simple feed processing technologies such as chopping and chaffing that can enable the animal to take more of the feedstuff and produce more milk per kilogram of feed consumed and also enable feed mixing. Delivery of these technologies could be done through farmer groups and linked to provision credit facilities with micro finance institutions.
  
  
• Introduction of small-scale feed conservation strategies such as tube silage and box baling of hay will help to ease dry season feed shortages. These conservation strategies have potential to catalyse feed markets for high quality feeds. These approaches could be achieved by introducing them as a business delivery service by unemployed rural youth, farmers or other interested entrepreneurs hence creating employment opportunities.
  
  
• There is a need to enhance proper calf nutrition by introducing improved calf starter supplements and feeding schedules to avoid farmers under feeding calves due to competition for milk between humans and calves.
  
  
• There is a need to enhance establishment and efficient use of pastures. There are a wide range of pasture improvement strategies (Mwebeze 2002).  These pasture improvement strategies vary from those that are expensive and labour intensive to those that are cheap, simple and cost effective. These will enhance improved pastures and soil conservation.

However, to introduce all these interventions in a sustainable way, it will be necessary to improve farmer training, access to information and strengthen linkages with stakeholders. A coalition approach where all the potential stakeholders are brought on a common platform has a demonstrated effect on the uptake of new technology. However, this innovation systems approach needs to be accompanied by participatory approaches that will allow technical interventions to be developed along with farmers and other stakeholders within the system to make them relevant and sustainable.

It is also important that introduction of new technology should be backed up by credit facilities, for example through cooperative societies and micro finance institutions. This will enable more farmers to invest in adopting new technology.  Such an arrangement could be made possible through cooperatives where farmers take credit against milk delivered.

Acknowledgements

The field study, analysis and publication of this article were conducted under the auspices of the East African Dairy Development project (EADD). It should be noted, however, that the responsibility for the content, findings and recommendations of the article rests with the authors. The views and opinions presented herein therefore represent those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions EADD. The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Nanjekho SW and Karanja EK for their contribution in data collection. Our gratitude is also extended to all the small-holder dairy farmers in all our study sites.

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Received 21 June 2010; Accepted 29 March 2011; Published 1 May 2011

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