Impact of major diseases and vectors in smallholder cattle production systems in different agro-ecological zones and farming systems in Uganda

M Ocaido, C P Otim* and D Kakaire*

Department of Wildlife and Animal Resource Management, Faculty of veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
mocaido@vetmed.mak.ac.ug
^* National Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 96 Tororo, Uganda

Abstract

A study of the impact of major diseases and vectors among smallholder cattle farmers was done in three agro-ecological zones in Uganda. Studies were done in: Soroti district representing a semi-humid agro-pastoral system, Kayunga district representing a humid mixed crop-livestock system and Kiruhura district representing a semi-arid pastoral system. Soroti and Kayunga districts were found to be having mixed crop-livestock production systems practising communal and tethering grazing of indigenous cattle. Meanwhile in Kiruhura district a farming system was mainly livestock production system, practising communal and paddocking grazing systems of indigenous and improved dairy cattle.  

Economic costs of diseases, including potential losses of income from milk and use of the animals for traction  and vectors per cattle head was higher in Soroti (Ug. Shs 42,700  valued at 1 US$ = Ug.Shs 1,800) than Kayunga (Ug Shs 15,900) and Kiruhura (Ug Shs 22,800). This represented the lost production potential of cattle. In Kiruhura, East Coast Fever (ECF), starvation and tick control caused big losses in the form of control costs and mortality.  Tick control contributed 91.1% of total disease control costs. Hence cheaper methods to control ticks should be explored and promoted. Starvation was causing 65% of total mortality losses. Efforts should therefore be made to de-stock herds. In Kayunga, 75.4% of losses were caused by ticks and Tick Borne Diseases (TTBDs) and the remaining by trypanosomosis, helminthosis and Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD). Losses were in the form of disease control costs and mortality. Efforts must be made to control TTBDs. TBDs were causing 68.1% of total mortality losses. While in Soroti, trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, helminthosis and LSD were causing major losses in form of mortality, milk and traction losses. Efforts to control diseases and vectors were less in Soroti, leading to high losses observed

Key words: disease economic cost, financial losses, mixed crop-livestock production systems

Introduction

In Uganda, as in other tropical countries, increased production and productivity of cattle is limited among others by the widespread occurrence of vectors and diseases. The losses are incurred in the form of productivity losses but possibly more important is in the lost potential (Brown 1997; Perry and Randolph 1999).

Little work has been carried out to assess the impact of major cattle vectors and diseases in different farming systems in different agro-ecological zones in Uganda. This study was to establish the impact of major diseases on cattle enterprises in different agro-ecological zones and grazing systems in Uganda.

The major output of this study was identification of major diseases that cause impact on cattle production in different agro-ecological zones and farming systems in Uganda so that control measures can be put in place in consultation with farmers, policy makers and other stakeholders. It is hoped that with control of the identified important cattle diseases the overall productivity of cattle enterprises will greatly improve hence improving household income of smallholder farmers.

From seven agro-ecological zones in Uganda namely: agro-pastoral system (Teso system), pastoral, banana-coffee, montane, banana / millet / cotton, West-Nile and Northern  zones (Mwebaze 1999), three districts representing three different agro-ecological zones (AEZs) and farming /grazing systems were selected for the study. The districts selected were: Soroti  in the East representing mixed crop and cattle production system with semi-humid tropical climate receiving above 1000 mm of rainfall annually, Kayunga in the central Uganda  was representing the Buganda coffee-banana production systems  with warm humid tropical  climate receiving rainfall between 1000 mm -1500 mm annually and Kiruhura  in western Uganda which was formerly pastoral production system, has a warm semi-arid climate receiving between 500 -1000 mm of rainfall annually (Mwebaze,1999). According to FAO classification, Soroti was representing AEZ2, Kayunga AEZ3 and Kiruhura AEZ1 (Mwebaze 1999).

Materials and methods 

Sampling procedure

 In each district, one county was selected in which two sub-counties were randomly selected. Subcounties of Asuret and Soroti were chosen for Soroti district; Bbaale and Kanyoza sub counties for Kayunga district, and Sanga and Nyakashashara subcounties for Kiruhura district.  From each sub county two parishes were randomly selected. Thereafter, two villages were randomly chosen from each of the selected parishes. From each village, 10 households keeping livestock were randomly selected. A total of 80 households were selected per district. The sample size per district was determined at 95% confidence level, assuming that  94.5% of the farms had cattle vectors and diseases using the equation given by Dohoo et al (2003) and Thrusfield (2007).

Data collection

Initially, a reconnaissance survey was done. Focus group discussions were held with farmers and members of cattle keeping households using rapid appraisal methods. This gave a clue to what were important diseases as perceived by the farmers. Later a structured questionnaire was administered to the farmers.

Data collected included: farm / household resources  (land, labour and capital), crop and livestock enterprises (cattle, goats, pigs and poultry), cattle herd sizes and structure, calving interval, calving rates, and first age of calving, cattle enterprise yields, parameters like milk yield, traction, annual herd growth; cattle eaten, bartered, cattle given out as gifts or stolen; output in terms of sales of milk, beef and live cattle; prices of outputs: per litre of milk, Kg of meat, skins / hides, specific age group of cattle category sold and traction per acre; prevalence of common livestock diseases; age specific morbidities and mortalities due to common cattle diseases; losses due to common diseases like: losses caused by mortalities, chemophylaxis costs, weight loss, milk loss and traction loss; disease control costs like vaccination, tick control (dipping, and spraying), anthelmintic treatment, labour  costs incurred in controlling cattle diseases; other inputs incurred like labour, bush clearing and interest paid on loans acquired; prices of inputs; sources of inputs and how they are accessed and gender labour inputs in control of diseases.

Data analysis

The economic costs caused by each disease and vector were calculated. The economic cost of diseases was taken as the sum of costs due to control of a disease in the cattle herds, loss due to mortality and loss of production. Losses in production were taken as losses in milk production and use of the animals for traction. Loss caused by weight and manure loss were not quantified. Cost of control of diseases were taken as sum of costs of vaccination and treatment of diseases and disease-related conditions like wounds and secondary infections. Costs of tick control were taken as cost of acaricide and cost of labour spent in spraying (man-hours). Losses caused by mortalities were taken as a sum of herd cost of age specific mortality for loss of calves, steers, heifers, adult female cattle and bulls. The economic cost of common diseases (includes costs of treatment, mortality, vaccination, milk loss and traction loss) per household and percentage contribution by each disease were calculated.

Results 

Cattle enterprise production systems description

The detailed description of cattle production systems found in Soroti, Kayunga and Kiruhura districts were as shown in Table 1.

The major cattle breed kept in Soroti  and Kayunga was indigenous zebu. Meanwhile in Kiruhura cattle kept were Ankole Sanga breed, which was being improved by crossing with exotic Friesian dairy bulls. The composition of cattle by breed category type (local, crosses and exotic)  and number/ percentage of households keeping them in Kiruhura were as shown in Table 2.

The variation of percentage herd composition of cattle in different districts were as shown in Table 3. 

The percentage response of the farmers as to the purpose of keeping cattle, how they were acquired and nature of grazing and constraints facing cattle enterprise were as shown in Table 4.  

The average cattle production parameters and different and average prices of cattle according to age category and cattle products were as shown in Table 5.  

The major diseases of cattle, morbidity and mortality rates and their control as revealed by the survey

The major diseases identified by farmers and their percentage response and mean ranking as revealed by the survey were as indicated in Table 6.

The percentage age specific annual morbidity rates of cattle due to common diseases in Soroti, Kayunga and Kiruhura districts as revealed by the farmers were as shown in Table 7.

The percentage age specific annual mortality rates of cattle due to common diseases in Soroti, Kayunga and Kiruhura districts  were as shown in Table 8.

The mean costs treatment for East Coast Fever (ECF) in calves was found to cost Ug. Shs 1,000. The cost of treatment for anaplasmosis for sub-adults was found to be Ug. Shs 4,625 for both adults and sub-adults.  The cost of treatment for trypanosomosis using Berenil ((1,3 bis (4'-amidinophenyl)triazene) was Ug. Shs 2,500 for adults and Ug. Shs 2,000 for sub-adults. The cost of treatment for babesiosis was found to be Ug. Shs 2,250 for adults and Ug. Shs 2,000 for sub-adults.

It was found that 43.8% of the farmers claimed that they were using traps for controlling tsetse flies and 15% used spraying with only 2.5% spraying using Tsetse tic®  (deltamethrin compound). The respondents in Soroti claimed that 78.8% were doing tick control with 95.2% of them controlling ticks by spraying, 36.5% doing by hand dressing and 3.2% using pour on.  The following acaricides were used Bayticol® (flumethrin) (11.3%), Amitraz®  cyclic amidines (36.5%), Decatix® (deltamethrin compound) (6.3%), Supona® (chlorfenvinphos) (6.3%) and Taktic®  (cyclic amidines) (3.8%). The farmers were spraying once a week (28.8%), once a every two weeks (15%) and once a month (7.5%). The mean volume of diluted spray used per animal was found to be 3.4±0.1 litres for adult cattle, 2.2±0.1 litres for sub adults and calves 1.5±0.07 litres.

The respondents in Kayunga claimed that they controlled tsetse flies using pyramidal traps (21%) and spraying (61.3%) using deltamethrin products mainly Decatix®   (31.3%) and Tsetse tic®   (21.3%). Each trap was costing Ug. Shs 15,000. Eighty five percent of the farmers were doing tick control through spraying. Other acaricides used for spraying were Amitraz®  and Supona®  used by 6.3% and 5% of the households respectively. A majority of the farmers (71.3%) were spraying their cattle once a week and 18.8% were doing once every 2 weeks. All the farmers who sprayed their cattle sprayed the whole animal body. The mean volume of diluted spray used per animal was found to be 3.44±0.15 litres for adult cattle, 2.3±0.1 litres for sub adults and calves 1.5±0.07 litres. The farmers had the following structures to assist in spraying: individual boma (17.5%), communal boma (45%) and crushes (16.3%).

Twenty five percent of the respondents in Kiruhura claimed that they controlled tsetse flies by spraying. Only 7.5% were using deltamethrin products (Decatix®  and Tsetsetic®), the rest were using miltbitraz®  (cyclic amidines).  Also a majority of the farmers (87.5 %) were spraying their cattle once a week and 7.5% were doing once every 2 weeks. All the farmers who sprayed their cattle sprayed the whole animal body. The mean volume of diluted spray used per animal was found to be 4.2±0.2 litres for adult cattle, 3.4±0.1 litres for sub adults and  2.6±0.1 litres. The farmers had the following structures to assist in spraying: individual bomas (38.8%), communal bomas (31.3%) and crushes (22.5%).

In Soroti, 73.8% were claiming that they were deworming their cattle. Ten percent said that they doing it monthly, 10% during the wet season, 7.5% during dry season and 32.5% when animals were sick. They used Albendazole (21.3%), Wormcid® (albendazole)(21.3%), Wormita®  (levamisole) (31.3%) and Nilzan® (levamisole hydrochloride, oxyclozanid and cobalt sulphate combination) (3.8%). In Kayunga, control of helminthosis was done by 80% of the farmers. About 17.5% dewormed their animals once a year, 5% monthly, 6.3% did it during rainy season and  33.8% did it when animals are sick. The common antihelmintics used were Wormicid®   (31.3%), Nilzan ®  (32.5%), Albendazole (21.3%), Levoxy ®  (12.5%) and Wormita®  (8.8%). In Kiruhura, control of helminthosis was done by 77.5% of the farmers. About 47.3% dewormed their animals during the wet season and 31.6% did when animals are sick. The common anthelmintics used was Albendazole (85.5%) costing on average 27,090±730 per litre

Vaccination costs for common diseases: FMD, CBPP, blackquarter and rinderpest was Ug. Shs 300 per animal in Soroti. Meanwhile in Kayunga and Kiruhura the costs of vaccination per animal were found to be Ug. Shs 300 for rinderpest, Ug. Shs 350 for CBPP, Ug. Shs 400 for FMD, blackquarter, brucelosis and Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD). The percentage of households vaccinating against common diseases were as shown in Table 9.

The percentage milk yield reduction by different diseases as said by farmers in different districts were as shown in Table 10.

In Soroti district, all households used animals for traction. The traction animals had to be rested for on average for 1 month in case of FMD, 3 weeks in case of trypanosomosis and 2 weeks for anaplasmosis and heartwater. On average Ug. Shs 20,000 was paid for ox-ploughing an acre. In Kayunga Animal traction was practised by 21.3% of the households, of which all were for ploughing and 70.6% used for pulling carts. Traction animals had to be rested for on average for 1 month in case of FMD, 3 weeks in case of trypanosomosis and 3 weeks for anaplasmosis and heartwater. On average Ug. Shs 19,833±4700 was paid for ox-ploughing an acre. Meanwhile in Kiruhura, no animals were used for traction

Economic cost of the common cattle diseases and vectors

The economic cost of common diseases (includes disease control costs,  treatment costs, , vaccination costs, mortality loss, milk loss and traction loss) per smallholder household were as shown in Table 11 in Soroti district, Table 12 in Kayunga district and Table 13 in Kiruhura district.

Annual average economic cost due to diseases and vectors per head of cattle was Ug. Shs 42,700 in Soroti,  Ug Shs 15,900 in Kayunga  and  Ug Shs 22,800 in Kiruhura district.

Discussion 

Description of the farming systems

Smallholder cattle production systems in Soroti and Kayunga AEZs were mixed crop-livestock production systems where cattle goats, pigs and poultry (chicken and turkeys) were kept (see Table 1).  Most of the land was under crops during the rainy season and become available for grazing during the dry season. Cattle, goats and chicken were major livestock species kept. For households that kept pigs, not more than one was usually kept.  Crops grown were mainly cassava, potatoes, groundnuts and millet. On contrary, in Kiruhura AEZ, the farming system was entirely for livestock production with little crop production. An increase in goat production was observed as compared with previous studies (Ocaido 2003). Cattle kept in Soroti  and  Kayunga were indigenous zebu. Meanwhile in Kiruhura cattle kept were indigenous Sanga Ankole and improved Ankole and Friesian crosses for milk production (Table 2). Fifty one point three of the households were keeping improved cattle in Kiruhura. These observations agree with earlier reports made by Ocaido (2003),  Ocaido et al (2005)  and Ocaido et al (2009a).

In both Soroti and Kayunga,  cattle were kept for milk, meat, live sales and traction (Table 4). Meanwhile for Kiruhura cattle were kept for live sales and milk.  The average milk yield in Soroti and Kayunga of 2.6 litres (Table 5) was higher than what was reported earlier of 1.4 litres by Ocaido et al (2004) in Serere sub-county, Soroti district. But much lower than milk yield of 7.6 litres observed in Kiruhura during this study. This could be explained by high milk yield by improved dairy cattle breeds kept. The herd structure observed in Soroti (Table 3), was typical of that supportive of traction, with bulls and steers constituting 27.1%. This agrees with earlier observations made by Ocaido et al (2005). In Kayunga, the herd structure depicted was typical of that supportive of some little traction, with bulls and steers constituting 17%.  These observations were contrary to herd structure which was observed in Kiruhura which was geared towards milk production. This was in agreement with earlier observations made by Ocaido (2003) and Ocaido et al (2009a) for cattle production systems around Lake Mburo National Park.

In all districts, most households acquired cattle through purchasing from auction markets (Table 4). Very few households claimed that they acquired cattle from inheritance or dowry. This showed that cattle keepers were tilted towards commercial farming than traditional cattle keeping. In Soroti and Kayunga, cattle were communally grazed (Table 4) although those with a few cattle had them tethered. In Kiruhura cattle were mainly communally grazed and paddocked. Kiruhura was moving towards dairy cattle production contary to ealier belief that this area was for pastoralism.

In Soroti, the major constraint to cattle production was diseases (see Table 4 ). Other constraints were lack of farm implements, pasture during dry season and drugs. Tsetse flies and poor performing cattle breeds were also mentioned as moderate problems faced by the farmers. Meanwhile in Kayunga and Kiruhura major constraints to cattle production were diseases, lack of water and pasture during dry season. This tends to agree with high mortalities of adult cows in Kiruhura which occurs due to starvation during dry season revealed by the study (Table 8). Other constraints observed in Kayunga district, were lack of veterinary extension services and poor breeds.

Major cattle diseases as revealed by farmer perceptions

In all districts, the findings of the major diseases affecting cattle as revealed by participatory rapid appraisal focus group discussions tended to agree with findings found with individual questionnaire interviews with the household heads (Tables 6, 7 and 8). In both Soroti and Kayunga districts, the major cattle diseases were found to be TBDs especially ECF and anapalsmosis. ECF was seen as a disease of the calves and anaplasmosis as a disease of adult and sub-adult cattle (Tables 7 and 8). Other of highly prioritised cattle diseases of importance in Soroti district as ranked by the farmers were Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD), Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP), trypanososmosis, heartwater and babesiosis (see Table 6).  Meanwhile in Kayunga district, the highly prioritised cattle diseases of importance as ranked by the farmers were LSD, helminthosis, FMD, CBPP, trypanososmosis, heartwater and babesiosis (see Table 6). In both Soroti and Kayunga districts, abortions and blindness were moderately seen and blackquarter was reported to be rare. In Kiruhura,  ECF, helminthosis, FMD and tick burdens were major disease/vector problems. ECF was reported to affecting both calves and sub-adult improved crosses of cattle.

Impact of major cattle diseases and vectors

In Soroti district, trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, LSD, ECF,  helminthosis and FMD in order of importance were diseases that were causing significant impact to cattle production (Table 11).This most likely applies to all the Teso agro-pastoral system.  While, in Kayunga district,  ECF, trypanosomosis, anapalsmosis, helminthosis, LSD and FMD in order of importance were diseases that caused significant impact to cattle production (Table 12). In Kiruhura, ECF and starvation were major diseases of importance in cattle (Table 13).

Trypanosomosis was most important disease of cattle in Soroti and second ranked in Kayunga. It was less significant in Kiruhura, agreeing with earlier studies done in the region (Ocaido et al 1996; Ocaido 2003 and Otim et al 2004). It caused losses in form of treatment, mortality loss, loss of traction power and milk yield. In Soroti and Kayunga cost-effective methods of controlling tsetse flies and trypanosomosis must be promoted. Earlier, Ocaido et al (2004) had piloted community participation of spraying of cattle with deltamethrin products in Serere county, Soroti district and was found  to be very cost-effective and sustainable. This approach needs to be scaled out. Elsewhere community approach in control of trypanososmosis had been adopted in Nigeria (Oluwafemi et al 2007). PATTEC (2001) has reviewed extensively approaches that can be used for controlling trypansomosis using community approach.

ECF was the most important disease in Kayunga and Kiruhura; and fourth most important in Soroti causing significant losses in form of calf loss among indigenous cattle; and calf and sub-adult losses among improved crosses.  More costs were incurred in treatment of clinical cases. Calf mortality depletes the replacing herd hence reduced off-take. Morbidity rate of 50.7% and mortality loss of 28.2 % was quite high in Soroti district as compared to other study districts and what has been reported elsewhere (Okello-Onen and Rutagwenda 1998;  Ocaido 2003). It was comparable to what was reported among the Masai herds (Homewood et al 2006). In Kiruhura, the incidence of ECF was increasing due to changing composition of their herds towards exotic genotype of Friesians. This calls for intensive tick control as exemplified by high costs incurred (Table 13). Besides starvation, other diseases currently were not causing a major financial losses to the farmers in Kiruhura.

Anaplasmosis was the second and third most important disease in Soroti and Kayunga respectively. Anaplasmosis prevalence was reported to be quite high among sub-adults and adults causing significant mortality losses. There was also traction power loss and milk reduction associated with this infection. Anaplasmosis was more prevalent due to relaxed tick control observed in these districts as compared to Kiruhura. Elsewhere, anaplasmosis had been reported to become a very important TBD when tick control was relaxed (Dolan 1985) as it was a case in Soroti district (Ocaido et al 2005).

In Soroti and Kayunga, LSD was more prevalent in all ages (Tables 7) and farmers were well aware of its presence (Table 6). This disease rarely causes mortality but costs are incurred in trying to treat the wounds using antibiotics to prevent septicaemia. However deaths have been reported when the wounds have been unattended to, due to secondary infection. This could explain the deaths, which were reported to have occurred due to this disease. More losses were incurred due to this in disease in Soroti due to poor farmer response to treat the sick cattle (Table 11) as compared to other districts (Tables 12 and 13). Vaccination and treatment against secondary infection of cattle should be encouraged.

In both Soroti and Kayunga, FMD was the fourth most important disease identified by the farmers  (Table 6).  However, it caused little apparent financial losses to the farmers (Table 11, 12 and 13). This was because no outbreak had occurred for sometime in Kiruhura and Kayunga. However, a low incidence was recorded in Soroti. This could have been acquired through cattle brought in by a re-stocking project. It had low losses in terms of animal mortality and treatment of sick animals. However in-case of an outbreak involving large number of cattle, the disease can cause significant effect on milk production, traction and live sales due to quarantine. This disease is endemic, hence farmers had to perform routine vaccination of cattle against it (Table 10).

Helminthosis problem was reported by many farmers. The losses were mainly in calves (see Tables 7 and 8) and costs of regular treatments of the calves. Adult cattle had no deaths from helminthosis.  Adult cattle were only treated with anthelmintics when they were sick. Helminthosis caused significant losses in Soroti. Attention should therefore be taken to de-worm cattle. Strategic de-worming of calves during rainy season should be done as recommended by Ocaido et al (1997).   Tactical communal de-worming of whole herds should be done during peak dry season, when environmental conditions are very harsh. This ensures that all developmental forms of the worms would be destroyed.

In both Soroti and Kayunga, incidence of CBPP was not reported, though farmers were very aware of the former occurrences. The disease seems to have been controlled due continuous annual vaccinations. In Soroti and Kayunga, blindness was reported to occur moderately in cattle. This problem was said to be emerging. This therefore requires further investigation.

Economic costs per cattle was very much higher in Soroti (Ug. Shs 42,700) than Kayunga  (Ug Shs 15,900) and Kiruhura (Ug Shs 22,800). This is a potential productivity lost per cattle due to diseases and vectors. This potential in productivity can be tapped by controlling the important diseases and vectors using cost effective sustainable methods. However average gross margin per head of cattle was reported to be Ug. Shs 98,700 in Kiruhura district by Ocaido et al (2009a) and Ug. Shs 63,700 in Soroti district by Ofwono (2006). This showed that although there was significant loss of output due to diseases and vectors, it was not more than returns from current cattle production systems. The losses due to diseases and vectors were only 23.1% of the net returns per head of cattle in Kiruhura district and 67% in Soroti district.

In Kiruhura AEZ, ECF, starvation and tick control caused more economic losses to smallholder cattle keepers in form of treatment and control costs and mortality loss.  Sixty five percent of mortality losses was due to mortality of adult female cattle during dry seasons and drought periods. Tick control contributed 91.1% of disease treatment and control costs. This implied that Infection Treatment and Immunisation (ITM) should be promoted to reduce tick control costs. The integration of strategic tick control and ITM have been used to induce endemic stability for ECF among exotic ranching breeds and their crosses (Kivaria 2007; Walker 2007). Elsewhere, in Tanzania, these methods have been adopted successfully among the Masai (Homewood et al 2006) and Kibaha district (Kivaria et al 2007). Earlier on studies had been done to design strategic tick control based on tick populations especially for Kiruhura area by Ocaido et al (2006). Also efforts should be made to reduce mortality losses of cattle during dry season and drought periods through de-stocking, provision of water holding facilities and pasture improvement. Higher losses due to drought had earlier been reported among pastoral herds around Lake Mburo National Park (Ocaido et al 2009b).

In Kayunga, 75.4% of economic losses to cattle farmers due to diseases and vectors was caused by TTBDs. Trypanosomosis, helminthosis and LSD caused moderate losses. Losses were incurred in form of treatment and control costs; and mortality losses. TBDs were causing 68.1% of total mortality losses. Efforts must be made to control TTBDs as advocated for Kiruhura district.

 In Soroti, trypanosomosis, TBDs especially anaplasmosis, helminthosis and LSD were causing major economic losses to farmers in form of mortality loss, milk loss and traction loss. Treatment and control costs of diseases were not significant. Efforts should therefore be done to promote treatment and control of vectors (ticks and tsetse flies) so as to reduce losses caused by cattle diseases and vectors. This explains why high potential losses are incurred by cattle farmers in Soroti than other districts. This is in agreement with earlier studies (Ocaido et al 2005) that farmers in Soroti were reluctant in controlling diseases and vectors of livestock.

Conclusions 

• Smallholder cattle farmers in Soroti in semi-humid climate practising communal grazing and tethering management of indigenous cattle incurred more losses due to diseases and vectors compared to other two eco-zones studied. In Soroti AEZ trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, helminthosis and Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) were causing major losses in form of mortality, milk and traction losses.

  
  

• In Kiruhura district with semi-arid environment, practising communal grazing and paddocking of indigenous and improved dairy cattle, East Coast Fever (ECF), starvation and tick control caused most losses in form of disease control costs and mortality. 

  
  

• In Kayunga district with humid climate, practising communal and tethering of indigenous cattle, 75.4% of losses was caused by Ticks and Tick Borne Diseases (TTBDs) and the remainder was caused by trypanosomosis, helminthosis and LSD. Losses were in form of disease control costs and mortality.

  
  

• There were some variations of importance cattle vectors and diseases according  to different ecological zones hence a package of different disease control strategies should be designed for each EAZ and farming system in Uganda.

Acknowledgements 

We acknowledge ARTP II World Bank Project for supporting this study financially. The efforts of all farmers and extension staff who participated in this study are highly appreciated.

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Received 19 May 2009; Accepted 17 June 2009; Published 1 September 2009

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