Livestock Research for Rural Development 15 (1) 2003

Citation of this paper

Village chicken production systems in Ethiopia:
2. Use patterns and performance valuation and chicken products and socio-economic functions of chicken 

Tadelle D#, Million T*, Alemu Y* and K J Peters 

Humboldt University of Berlin, Animal Breeding for Tropics and sub-tropics
Philippstr. 13, Haus 9,  10115 Berlin
*Debre Zeit Agriculture Research Centre,
P.O.Box 32, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
#Corresponding author: sarmeder@hotmail.com
Present address: Humboldt University of Berlin, Animal Breeding for Tropics and sub-tropics
Philippstr. 13, Haus 9,  10115 Berlin 


Abstracts 

This study was conducted in five different agro-ecological regions in Ethiopia. A total of 250 households from 10 villages (two villages from each region) were involved in the study. The objectives were to assess the use patterns and value of chicken and chicken products and socio-economic functions of village chicken production in the study areas. A formal survey, using a structured questionnaire integrated with Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques relevant to rural chicken production system, was applied. In addition, a recall survey was conducted. Economic analysis based on the performance of breeding females from all the study areas was made.

The results from the analysis of variance showed significant differences in use patterns of chicken and chicken products among the different study regions. About 50, 27 and 23% of the eggs produced were reported to be used for hatching, sale and home consumption, respectively, while 5.5, 3.8 and 3.1 birds were used for sale, replacement and consumption. A strong and inverse correlation  was evident between wealth status and use of chicken and chicken products for sale and home consumption. The over all Gross Return as percent of initial values and Gross Return per breeding female per year were 67.5% and 12.48 Birr, respectively. 

It is inferred that village chicken production plays an important role in the supply of high quality protein to the family food balance. However, based on the results of this study it contributes only about 32% of the animal protein needs of households. 

Key words: Village chicken, use patterns, socio-economics, Ethiopia 


Introduction 

Rising income and urbanisation in many parts of the developing world caused a growing demand for animal products. The per capita consumption of meat more than doubled in the developing world from 1967 to 1997, with even more spectacular increase in the consumption of poultry (Delgado et al 1999). Nevertheless, a typical person in the developing world still consumes on average only a third as much meat as a typical person in the developed world. Poultry meat and egg production accounted for more than 28% of the total animal protein produced world wide in 1997. The proportional contribution of poultry by the year 2020 is believed to increase to 40%, the major increase being in the developing world (Delgado et al 1999). Consequently, the quantity of animal feed will increase to 26% of the cereal demanded by developing countries in 2020. Reflecting the demand for an increased cereal production, particularly maize for animal feed rather than for direct human consumption. Trends in poultry production and demand are highest in Asian countries and lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the low overall economic development in the region (Delgado et al 1999). Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region in which both number and proportion of malnourished children has been constantly rising in the past years and expected to rise, rather than fall, over the next 20 years. According to Rosegrant et al (2001) one-third of all children in sub-Saharan Africa continue to go to bed hungry and have their mental and physical development compromised by the ravages of hunger. 

Poultry occupies a unique position in terms of its contribution to the provision of high quality protein food to rural smallholder farming families in Africa (Sonaiya et al 1999) and particularly in Ethiopia (Tadelle 1996; Tadelle and Ogle 2001). There are only few alternative animal protein sources available. There are also few cultural or religious taboos that stand against the consumption of eggs and poultry meat in most countries.  Both poultry meat and eggs enrich and contribute to a well balanced diet to satisfy human needs. Village poultry could be particularly important in improving the diet of young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. To date there are no detailed studies conducted targeting comprehensive description of use patterns of chicken and chicken products and understanding the associated socio-economic conditions, the roles and function of local chicken as well as production constraints which will have considerable relevance in view of envisaging future research and development directions and strategies. Thus, the present study was conducted with the objectives of understanding the use patterns of chicken and chicken products, socio-economic functions of birds and related constraints 


Materials and methods 

Study areas 

This study was conducted in five different agro-ecological regions of Ethiopia namely, Tilili, Horo, Chefe, Jarso and Tepi. Two market sheds per region and one village per market shed consisting a total of 250 households were included in the study. The selection of market sheds was made on the basis of information from previous studies regarding the importance of sub-regional poultry markets and in consultation with experts from Regional Agricultural bureaux. A total of 10 market sheds, each of which supply chicken and chicken products to a sub-regional market and urban centre, were selected. The assumption was that markets allow measurement of diverse functions of village poultry for assessing opportunities and perspectives of village poultry. Villages were selected and considered for the present study if chicken production exists in the village economy, no prior improvement programs (distribution of exotic birds) were undertaken and villagers were willing to participate in the study. Villages from each market shed were also selected in consultation with agricultural experts in sub regional bureaux. 

Data collection 

A structured questionnaire integrated with Participatory Rural Appraisal methods relevant to rural poultry production were used. Information was gathered from individual farmers, extension officers, essential informants and village groups. The exercises were aimed at assessing the perspectives of the poultry production system, its function and importance in the socio-economic lives of the community. In addition information on the poultry production and management system (organisation, ownership, flock characteristics, flock performance, use patterns of poultry products and production management) and other related issues of poultry production (e.g. relationship between poultry keeping and wealth status of each household) were gathered. Problems prevailing in chicken production in each of the study villages, and opportunities for improving poultry production were assessed and attempts were made to closely examine other socio-economic aspects such as cultural roles of poultry production in the respective study areas. 

Finally, a transect walk was made involving 10 households in each of the 10 study villages. Close visits in and around the residential quarters of the villages were then made in order to obtain first hand observation on all aspects of poultry production in individual households, and to involve women in the households since their participation in the village meetings and other data collection activities were rather restricted. Based on the assumption that each woman farmer has an idea of the performance of her chicken a recall survey was conducted to establish specific hen performance history in relation to production and productivity in addition, use patterns of poultry products were assessed. 

At the commencement of the work, an initial inventory was made in each household and the number and history of each breeding female was recorded.  The initial value and gross return of the flock was calculated using mean market prices reported by households. Separate prices were used for different age group of chicken. The gross return was expressed first as a cash figure and then relative to the value of the initial inventory and also to the number of breeding females at the start of the recall period. Home consumed chicken were considered as sold and their market prices were considered. A year round market price of birds with different age and sex during ordinary and religious and festival market days were recorded in one representative market (Debre Zeit) in the central Ethiopia. Mean market price for ordinary market days and four important religious and traditional festival eve market prices were considered for the analysis.  

Statistical analysis 

The qualitative and quantitative data sets were analysed using appropriate statistical analysis procedures. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 1996), a computer-based statistical software program, was employed. Analysis of variance was carried out on some of the parameters (SAS 1987). The Duncan Multiple Range Test (Duncan 1955) was used to locate treatment means that were significantly different. Correlation analysis was also made to depict the influence of wealth status on flock characteristics, performance indicators, use patterns of chicken and chicken products, and income from chicken farming (Steel and Torrie 1980). 


Results 

Use pattern of chicken and chicken products 

The least squares means of use patterns of chicken and chicken products in the five study regions are given in Table 1. Analysis of variance showed the presence of a statistically significant (p<0.001) difference in use patterns of chicken and chicken products between the different study regions in Ethiopia. However, no significant effect of market sheds within each region was depicted.  

Table 1. Least Squares Means (LSM±SE) of use pattern of eggs and chicken (more than 8 weeks of age) in the households of the five study regions of Ethiopia

Study regions

Use patterns

Eggs (%)

Chicken (number)

Sales

Consumption

Hatching

Sales

Consumption

Replacement

Tilili

26.5ab

17.1c

56.7a

7.3a

2.5b

5.6a

Horro

24.7ab

21.4bc

54.2a

4.8c

3.0b

2.9bc

Chefe

30.1a

17.5c

52.7 a

6.1b

2.5b

4.1ab

Jarso

30.7a

24.2b

44.9b

5.9bc

2.9b

4.0ab

Tepi

21.5b

37.7a

39.9b

3.5d

4.5a

2.5c

SE

2.5

2.2

2.9

0.41

0.21

0.57

Sig.

*

**

**

**

***

**

Overall mean

26.6±1.3

23.3±0.9

50.1±1.3

5.5±0.18

3.1±.09

3.8±0.25

Means were derived from 50 households per region
abcd Means within a column followed by different superscripts show the presence of significant differences
Significance level: * P<0.05; ** P<0.01; *** P<0.001

In order of importance, eggs were used for hatching, sale and home consumption while chicks produced were used for sale, replacement and home consumption. About 50, 27 and 23% of the eggs produced were reported to be used for hatching, sale and home consumption, and 5.5, 3.8 and 3.1 birds were used for sale, replacement, and consumption, respectively. Unlike the other four regions, which followed the above trend, in the Tepi region, eggs produced were used for hatching, home consumption and sale while chicks produced were used for consumption, sale and replacement, respectively in decreasing order of importance.  Farmers from the Tepi region reported the lowest sale and the highest home consumption of chicken and chicken products.  Highest proportions of eggs were sold in Jarso and Chefe regions, whereas the highest number of chickens sold were reported in the Tilili region. A significant (p<0.05) and an inverse correlation (r = -0.22) was evident between proportion of consumption and sale of eggs, showing a decrease in proportion of eggs consumed at home with an increase in proportion of eggs sold by households, respectively (Table 2).  

Table 2. Correlation coefficients between flock characteristics, performance indicators and use patterns of village chicken production in Ethiopia
 

Proportion of eggs consumed

Proportion of eggs sold

Proportion of  eggs set

Number of eggs incubated

Number of chicken consumed

Number of chicken sold

Wealth status
of HH

Proportion of eggs sold

-0.22b

 

 

 

 

 

 

Proportion of eggs hatched

-0.58b

-0.67 a

 

 

 

 

 

Number of eggs/set

-0.05 NS

-0.03 NS

0.06 NS

 

 

 

 

Number of chicken consumed

0.26 b

-0.07 NS

-0.16 NS

0.14NS

 

 

 

Number of chicken sold

-0.29 a

0.22 b

0.03 NS

0.12 NS

-0.17 NS

 

 

Wealth status of the HH

0.37 a

-0.20 b

-0.12 NS

0.01 NS

0.34 a

-0.14 NS

 

Income from chicken farm

-0.25 b

0.07 NS

0.13 NS

0.04 Ns

-0.45 a

0.27 a

-0.48 a

Significance level   a  P<0.01;   b   P<0.05;   NS   non-significant, HH household

In all the study regions, households also kept birds for purposes other than for reproduction, sale, and consumption, in particular for their socio-religious functions at home. The plumage colour, sex, comb type, feather cover and age of the bird used were very important for socio-religious functions, as was the commitment of an individual to a particular spiritual being or a cosmic force, season and traditional and/or religious festival. Farm households from the study areas mentioned the socio-cultural role of birds and corresponding financial benefits as an important source of cash income from sales of birds. During group discussions, farmers mentioned colour, comb type and feather cover of birds as important selection criteria since very high market values are attached to these characters during socio-religious festivals. Special colour, comb type and down feather colour with corresponding sex and age in particular traditional and religious festivals fetch higher prices in the market as compared to the prices of the bird with the same colour, comb type and down feather colour in normal market days. The means and ranges of market prices of live chicken and eggs in ordinary market days and eves of four festival markets in Debre Zeit town (located in central Ethiopia) are presented in Table 3.  

Table 3. Mean and ranges of market prices of live chicken and eggs in ordinary market days and market days on eves of four festivals  in Debre Zeit, Ethiopia (2000/2001)
Market time

Price of birds (by age and sex) and eggs  (Birr*/unit)

Mature male

Mature female

Growers

Eggs

Ordinary weekly market days

11.9±2.7 (7-20)**
(125)***

8.0±1.9 (5-18)
(125)

5.4±1.2 (3.5-10)
(108)

0.31±0.04 (0.25-0.40)
(129)****

Market days of eves of festivals
-Eth. new year (Sept 12)

21.5±4.3 (12.5-30)
(105)

13.4±3.2 (9-25)
(102)

9.0±1.9 (5-15)
(73)

0.45±0.06 (0.29-0.50)
(102)

-Meskel (Sep. 30)

22.3±4.0 (15-30)
(32)

13.7±3.0 (10-20)
(32)

9.3±2.0 (7-16)
(20)

0.46±0.05 (0.33-0.50)
(31)

-X-mass

21.4±3.9 (13-30)
(58)

13.7±3.6 (6-25)
(58)

9.1±2.4 (5-15)
(42)

0.45±0.06 (0.29-0.50)
(57)

-Easter

24.7±3.8 (12.5-33)
(125)

15.3±4.3 (8-32.5)
(123)

10.2±3.0 (5-18)
(87)

0.46±0.07 (0.29-0.66)
(122)

Mean percentage increase of prices in festival markets (%)

88.9

75.3

74.1

46.8

8.50 Birr is equivalent to 1 USD
** Ranges;  *** Figures in bracket represents number of birds from which means were derived
**** Figures in bracket represents number of sellers from which means were derived

Mean percentage increase of prices in festival markets were in decreasing order for mature male, mature female, growers and eggs.  In some cases, live birds were also kept at home for spiritual uses, and never intended for consumption. If the bird is female, she was allowed to lay eggs, which were not consumed, but sold in the market and the money used to buy non consumable items. Apart from these beliefs, traditional "healers" prescribed a sacrifice or keeping a live bird at home for example, to ensure a safe journey, to cure a sick person in the family etc. Sacrificed animals are usually consumed, but some members of the family, often women, refuse to eat the meat. Birds of exotic origin and naked necks were not accepted for sacrifice. Households except from Jarso market sheds, reported to invite special guests to partake of the popular dish " doro wat", which contains both chicken meat and eggs and is considered to be one of the most exclusive national dishes in the country. 

Financial valuation of performance traits 

Mean values of reproductive performance of breeding females of local chicken ecotypes  under farmers' management in Ethiopia over a period of one year are presented in Table 4. Economic analysis was made based on the performance of breeding females from all the study areas. The overall Gross Return as percent of initial values and Gross Return per breeding female per year were 67.5% and 12.5 Birr, respectively.  Gross Return was highly affected by survival rate of chicken. The mean age of breeding females in reproduction were reported to be 3.9 years ranging from 2.5 to 5 years. The lowest was reported in the Tilili market shed and the highest in the Tepi market shed, respectively.   

Table 4.  Mean values of reproductive performance of breeding females of local chicken ecotypes  under farmers management in Ethiopia over a period of one year (2000/2001)
Study regions

 

Reproductive performance of  breeding females

Financial  value (Birr)*

Mean No**.of breeding females/hh

Mean No of hatchs per hen/ year

Mean No. of chicks/ hatch

Mean No of chicks survived (8 wks)

Initial value (IV)

Gross return (GR)

GR as % of  IV

GR per breeding female

Tilili  (50) ***

8

2.9

9.5

5.0

137.60

116.00

84.30

14.50

Horro (50)

5

2.8

8.9

4.2

88.00

58.80

66.80

11.7

Chefe (50)

4

3.0

9.8

4.9

72.40

58.80

81.20

14.70

Jarso  (50)

5

2.1

9.3

5.1

95.00

53.55

56.40

10.71

Tepi (50)

4

2.3

8.9

4.6

82.00

42.32

51.60

10.58

Overall mean (250)

5

2.6

9.3

4.8

92.50

62.40

67.50

12.48

* 8.50 Birr is equivalent to 1 USD, ** No.  Number, *** Figures in bracket represents number of households from which means were derived
 Marketing of chicken and chicken products

Live birds and eggs are usually sold in local markets, to civil servants and occasionally to middlemen for retail in the larger towns and cities of the market sheds. In Tilili, Horro and Chefe regions, most of the middlemen were students from the same and/or the surrounding villages. The estimated distance of the marketplace from the villages varies from 1-7 km with an average of 2.8 km. According to farm households, the largest off-take rates from the flock occur particularly during holidays and festivals and during the onset of disease outbreaks. The latter is meant to prevent or minimise expected financial losses from high morbidity and mortality. In such circumstances prices fall dramatically due to the high supply compared to demand. At times, nearly all the birds brought to a market should be sold at available price. This is mainly exercised, as part of a precautionary measure to prevent introduction of disease(s) to flocks at farm site from markets. Farmers also sell birds and eggs in order to meet their cash requirement for small household expenditures. 

Socio-economic aspects of keeping chicken

The present study revealed that women have considerable knowledge about poultry and poultry production more than their men counterparts. In all the 10 study villages, it was found that it is mostly the women who own and manage the birds and control the cash generated from sales. Next in the picture come children and then men. The wealth status of the villagers influenced chicken production in the study areas. There was no statistically discernible (p>0.05) variation between wealth status and number of birds owned by households. However, it was learned that households with different wealth status have different objectives for keeping poultry and have different use pattern and management practices. On the one hand, wealthier families keep birds as a sideline activity and much of the products were used at home with only smaller proportion for sale. On the other hand, the poorer ones keep birds as a means of income generation through sales, and devote more time and effort to their management. These assertions were further confirmed by the significant (p<0.01) and negative correlation (r = -0.48) between wealth status and cash income from chicken farming. About 30.8, 23.2, 29.6 and 16.4% of the households, respectively, were earning a cash income of  >300, 200-300, 100-200 and less than 100 Ethiopian Birr (1 USD=8 Ethiopian Birr) per year from sales of live chicken and eggs (Table 5).  

Table 5. Mean percentage of households by wealth status and annual cash income from chicken farming in 250 households from five Agro-ecological regions in Ethiopia

 

Wealth status of the household

Income from sales (Birr)

Rich

Medium

Poor

Tilili

 

 

 

<100

30

43

12

100-200

10

17

24

200-300

20

17

29

>300

40

61

35

Horro

 

 

 

<100

67

31

33

100-200

22

39

40

200-300

11

19

13

>300

-

12

13

Chefe

 

 

 

<100

20

-

19

100-200

-

21

25

200-300

60

24

63

>300

20

55

50

Jarso

 

 

 

<100

25

23

7

100-200

50

48

47

200-300

25

26

33

>300

-

3

13

Tepi

 

 

 

<100

25

3

-

100-200

50

28

8

200-300

25

35

15

>300

-

35

77

Grand mean

 

 

 

<100

16

100-200

30

200-300

23

>300

31

The criteria used in determining the wealth status of households as rich, medium and poor was considering the heads of cattle, land, number of coffee trees, the quality and number of Chat (Catha edulis) trees, income from off-farm activities  etc owned by the household and based on the information from the key informants about the household.  A household in the rich category in one location might be medium in the other location.

Discussion

Although it was difficult to determine the most important purpose due, for example, to the difficulty in comparing the spiritual benefit of sacrifice with the financial benefit of sale, based on the results of this study, indigenous chicken and chicken products have direct use as sale, consumption and reproduction and equally the cultural, social and religious functions of indigenous chicken types were important in all the study sites. The most rational strategy for conserving livestock breeds is to ensure that they remain a functioning part of the farm production system. Based on the results of this study, that is certainly true for indigenous chicken as an important part of a balanced farming system, conserving in their production environment is recommended but incorporating the cultural and religious functions of indigenous chicken types is believed to play a role to this end.  

Adult productivity and educational attainment depends, to a considerable extent, on the health and nutrition condition during early childhood. An IFPRI report by Delgado (1999) showed that a healthy adult with a nutritionally adequate diet has a higher level of economic productivity in both own-farm production and labour market than the one who eats and keeps less well. 

Poultry occupy a unique position in terms of their contribution to the provision of high quality protein food to rural smallholder farming families in Africa (Sonaiya et al 1999). There are only few alternative animal protein sources available. There are also few cultural or religious taboos that stand against the consumption of eggs and poultry meat in the study areas.  Both poultry egg and meat enrich and contribute to a well balanced diet to satisfy human needs. However, based on the results of this study, the amount of egg and chicken consumed by farm households in the study areas is generally below the needs for animal protein. According to Smith (1990) an average adult human needs about 65g of protein a day of which only 10% needs to be protein of animal origin. Village poultry could be particularly important in improving the diet of young children in Sub-Saharan Africa in which currently inhabits about 33 million malnourished children, which are below five years old (Rosegrant et al 2001) and responsible for deaths of millions. Even though this discussion is being made without a household nutrition survey and assuming that the farm households could get their 50% animal protein requirements from other foods of animal origin e.g. milk and milk products; one egg or 40g of poultry meat could provide animal protein needed to supply the remaining 50% of essential amino acids to one person for two days. Provision of one egg per person per two days would necessitate a production of 182 eggs per individual per year.  If a similar amount of protein could be provided from chicken meat one 1.5 kg bird per person would be needed every two months.  

The results of the present study showed that a typical family in the study villages consists of one nourishing mother, a man and four children aged 1, 5, 9 and 11. The total animal protein requirements/day/family would, therefore, be 28.9g, 50% of which could be obtained from three 50g eggs (6.1g protein/egg) a day or one 1.5 kg chicken (25g protein/100g chicken meat) consumed by the family each week.  Based on the current number of hens and their productivity status, and assuming that all eggs produced per year will be used for home consumption plus the number of chicken consumed by farm households, it can be projected that a scavenging poultry flock could provide as much as 50% of the animal protein requirements, which is sufficient to satisfy requirements for only 120 days. From this depiction based on the prevailing production levels, it is possible to satisfy only about 32% of the annual animal protein requirements for rural families. Is that possible to increase the contribution of the present system to the family food supply system?  

It would appear that simple changes in management practices (e.g. preferential provision of feed to newly hatched chicks), home remedies (e.g. in door management of chicks) and including attention to small details (e.g. control of predators) are believed capable of bringing losses well below the reported high mortality and in turn improve the offtake rate from traditional chicken farming. It is inferred that improving the offtake from traditional chicken production as goal starting with changing the genetic potential which does not make sense, if not harmful, through cockerel exchange programme or by using improved breeds before showing the producers the possibility of breaking the cycle through vaccination against Newcastle Disease, improving the husbandry aspect and curbing the very high chick mortality is senseless. Above all it is important to make poultry producers aware that there are options and that is possible to increase the benefits from local birds with small additional inputs and improvements in management as the first step for improvement, then thinking about breeding strategy to improve the genetic potential of the local birds. This evolutionary development of the present system to a more productive and efficient one is outlined by Bessei (1987) and Sonaiya (1990). Local farmers understanding and knowledge about poultry production can be used as a base to further endeavours to this end.
 

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Received 2 October 2002; Accepted 20 January 2003

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