Availability and use of work animals in the middle Andean hill farming systems of Bolivia

J T Dijkman, B G Sims* and L Zambrana**

Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Chatham ME4 4TB, UK
* Silsoe Research Institute (SRI), Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK
^** Centro de Investigación, Formación y Extensión en Mecanización Agrícola (CIFEMA), Casilla 831, Cochabamba, Bolivia

Abstract

A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was designed to analyse current availability and use of draft animals in farming systems in the middle Andean hills, and to prepare detailed recommendations for demand-led draft animal research. The PRA was carried out between May and October of 1996 in six communities in three provinces (Capinota, Ayopaya, Tiraque) of the Cochabamba Region in Bolivia. These provinces were selected as they represent the broad spectrum of agro-ecological zones, socio-economic circumstances and work animal usage within the region. The PRAs were carried out within a collaborative framework of farmers, local institutes and NGOs. The preparatory study, together with a confirmatory workshop which was organised in October 1996 and attended by community representatives, intermediate users and scientists, clearly identified draft animal husbandry (animal health, feeding, diversification of animal use and animal housing), implements (transport, soil cultivation, seeding, weeding and harvesting) and soil and water conservation (equipment and practices linked to fodder production) as major limiting factors in the farming systems within the target area.

Key words: PRA, draft animals, farming systems

Introduction

Work animals continue to make a significant contribution to many rural and urban economies. In fields that are difficult for tractors to reach, such as terraced or steep hillsides and on farms where the scale of enterprise, as well as finance, does not justify the procurement of a tractor, animal power is the only means of cultivating the land other than by hand (Pearson and Dijkman 1994). The recognition of their enduring importance has stimulated interest in research on work animals. This is clearly indicated in recent reviews by Petheram et al (1989) and Starkey et al (1991), which list organisations and institutes working on the subject. Farmer-felt constraints ranging from a lack of feed resources, access to and availability of work animals to the absence of suitable implements and spare-parts have been reported from a number of hillside farming systems (Gatenby et al. 1990; Pariyar and Singh 1995; Starkey 1995). The majority of the research, however, has concentrated on the lowland areas of sub-Saharan Africa and South-east Asia and, as a result, relatively little data are available on the rôle of work animals in hillside farming systems, particularly within Latin America. To enable the initiation of the much needed research in this region, a preliminary requirement was the execution of a preparatory study. This paper presents the results of a PRA and a confirmatory workshop attended by community representatives, intermediate users and scientists. These activities were organised in the Cochabamba region of Bolivia in the second half of 1996 to describe and analyse current availability and use of work animals, and to enable the preparation of detailed recommendations for demand-led research in hillside farming systems in the middle Andean hills.

In close coordination with the Universidad Mayor de San Simón (UMSS), a three day rapid overview survey was conducted in the Cochabamba region. To enable the examination of livestock and work animal systems under a wide range of conditions, three provinces were selected for the PRA - Capinota, Ayopaya and Tiraque - which represent the broad spectrum of agro-ecological zones, socio-economic circumstances and work animal usage within the mid Andean hill region. Following the selection of these three areas, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and development projects working in each of these provinces were contacted and agreed to collaborate in the study. In close consultation with these NGOs (Asociación de Servicios Artesanales y Rurales (ASAR), Centro de Investigación y Promoción del Campesino (CIPCA), Centro de Desarrollo Social y Económico (DESEC), Programa de Investigación de la Papa (PROINPA) and World Vision), two communities in each of the provinces were selected to participate in the study.

Village meetings were organised to introduce the proposed PRA and to request the permission and the collaboration of the people in the execution of the study. The selected communities; Sarco Kucho and Sarcobamba in Capinota; Piusilla and San Isidro in Ayopaya; Boquerón K’asa and Kolque Joya in Tiraque, all agreed to participate in the studies, which were conducted over a period of three weeks each per community. During the PRA exercise a checklist, elaborated with the help of all project collaborators, incorporating a variety of methods such as historical transects, seasonal calendars, mobility maps, resource flow diagrams and matrix and problem ranking, was used to obtain basic data on communities, history, farming and livelihood systems, livestock and work animal sub-systems.

The confirmatory workshop, held over a two day period in October 1996, was organised to present and discuss the results of the PRA with community representatives, NGOs and scientists and to define the research activities for the next project phase. During the workshop, following the presentation and discussion of the PRA results, delegates were divided into four groups to analyse further the observed problems. The results of this group work were thereafter presented during a plenary session to generate a problems and objectives tree. Following the generation of these diagrams, the project goal and purpose were established, after which the project outputs required to attain the purpose were discussed in small groups. The outcome of these group discussions was presented during a plenary session during which the project outputs were prioritised. Subsequently, plenary decisions were taken on the specific activities needed to secure the defined outputs, to finalise the project’s logical framework.

Brief description of the communities

The two communities in Capinota are situated at an altitude of about 2400 meters above sea level (masl). The average annual temperature in the communities is 15 ^°C, with the risk of frost during May, June and July and the highest ambient temperatures between September and December. The total average annual rainfall of about 500 mm is distributed over a period of 5 months with the highest precipitation between November and March (Figure 1). Most of the agricultural land of both communities is made up by alluvial river valley bottoms, which are predominantly cultivated with a range of horticultural crops (carrots, garlic, onions etc.) or potatoes. Size of land holding ranges from 0.2 to 7 ha. Farmers with larger holdings also own land on the adjacent hillsides (slopes up to 30 %) which is mostly utilised for grazing sheep or goats. An estimated 90 % of the cultivated terrain benefits from the availability of an irrigation canal system which has water available throughout the year. Apart from the described crop cultivation activities, most families also rear a variety of farm animals such as a pair of draft oxen, dairy cows, equids, pigs, sheep, goats, poultry and rabbits. Whereas all families in the communities own some form of livestock, ownership of large farm animals is restricted by lack of land, feed resources and finance. Sarco Kucho, which has approximately 400 inhabitants, and Sarcobamba, with roughly 1000 inhabitants, were connected to the electricity grid in 1995. In addition, provisions for potable water have also been installed recently. Both communities have a primary school, but no health facilities are available.

Piusilla and San Isidro in Ayopaya province, are neighbouring villages located at an altitude of between 3400 to 3800 masl. Average annual temperature is 15 ^°C, with frost occurring between May and August and the highest ambient temperatures in November. The total average rainfall of about 650 mm/annum is distributed over a five month period with the highest precipitation in the months of December, January and February (Figure 1). The cultivated land (slope 10 - 60 %), is divided in four distinct altitude zones, which, in ascending order, are: Miska, Llujchi, Temporal and Wata Tarpuy, the two lowest of which benefit from year-round availability of irrigation water. Potato is the main crop in all zones, but the crop rotations, planting dates and fallow periods differ substantially. In the Miska, for example, potatoes are planted in May and harvested in November, followed by a maize crop which is superseded by a one year fallow period. In the Wata Tarpuy, potatoes are planted in October, followed by forage oats and a fallow period of eight years. Size of land holding ranges from 0.3 to three ha. Farmers also have access to communal land in the Wata Tarpuy for grazing and cultivation, the allocation of which is decided in village meetings. Apart from a pair of oxen, which is owned by practically all families and which is used solely soil preparation, livestock ownership in most cases also constitutes either horses or donkeys, sheep, pigs, poultry and at the highest elevations, llamas. Piusilla, which has approximately 850 inhabitants, and San Isidro, with roughly 1200 inhabitants have had access to provisions for potable water since 1976. Although the two communities have a generator, this only provides electricity for three hours every evening. The two villages share a health clinic and have had a primary and secondary school since 1940.

The two communities in Tiraque are situated at an altitude of about 3600 masl. The average annual temperature in the communities is 11 ^oC, with frost occurring from May till September. The highest ambient temperatures are recorded in October and November. The total average annual rainfall of approximately 530 mm is distributed over a four month period between December and April, with the highest precipitation in January and February (Figure 1). The cultivable land (slopes up to 35 %), is divided into three altitude zones, which are in ascending order of altitude and descending order of fertility: Hura Jallpas, Chapi Jallpas and Pata Chirijallpas. Between 50 and 80 % of the two lower zones profit from the availability of irrigation channels, although water is not always available year-round. Crop rotations, potato followed by a cereal or a legume and a one to two year fallow period, are similar in the different zones, but planting dates are varied due to the differences in altitude and ambient temperature. Size of land holding varies between 0.1 and 5 ha. All households own a pair of oxen, one or two donkeys, sheep, pigs, poultry and about 10% of the population in both villages owns a horse. Boquerón K’asa, which has about 2400 inhabitants, has no electricity or potable water facilities. The community does have a primary and secondary school and a resident village health worker. Kolque Joya, with approximately 450 inhabitants, has been connected to the electricity grid since 1995 and has had potable water facilities, which serve about 70 % of the population, since 1994. No school or health services are available in the community.

Figure 1. Climate calendars for the communities in Capinota, Ayopaya and Tiraque as elaborated by farmers during the PRA

Aynokas system

Farming families in Ayopaya province, in addition to their privately owned land, also have access to areas of communal land. This communal system of land use, called the Aynokas system, has been described in detail by Zimmerer (1991), Hervé et al (1994) and Pestalozzi (1997). Briefly, a community may have several high altitude hillside areas or Aynokas dedicated to this system of land use. Access to, and use of the Aynokas by each family is decided on a communal basis. Aynokas are normally subdivided in ten to 13 distinct plots. At any one time, three plots of the Aynoka will have been under cultivation for one, two and three years, respectively. Each year, this rotational cultivation system progresses by one plot, with the area that has been cultivated for the past three years entering into a seven to ten year fallow period and the plot that has finished this fallow period entering into a three year cultivation period. During their fallow, plots are used for extensive grazing by livestock. The areas of the Aynoka where cultivation is taking place, however, are excluded from grazing. As only parts of the plots dedicated to cultivation are actually planted with crops, a substantial area of natural vegetation within the plots has the opportunity to recuperate from grazing. Hence, these areas are an abundant source of animal feed once they enter into their fallow period.

Following the Agricultural Reform Bill of 1954, when Bolivian peasants, who previously worked the land belonging to large landowners under a feudal system, acquired ownership rights to the land they were cultivating, the agricultural landscape has changed significantly (Bentley 1996). Not only did peasant farmers enter into the market economy, but also the agricultural development in the country now focused on the millions of subsistence farmers that had to provide the country with food. The more recent opening of large parts of the Andean hinterland by an ever expanding network of all-weather roads, has also meant that NGOs and other development organisations now have relatively easy access to communities that were previously virtually beyond their reach. Through this improved accessibility and availability of information, farming communities were able to obtain inputs such as chemical fertilisers, phyto-sanitary chemicals and improved potato varieties. These technologies have had a major impact on the production of this crop with yields, in some cases, increasing more than tenfold. As a result, farms that previously produced c. 1000 kg of potatoes of which about 800 kg were used for family consumption whilst the remainder was marketed, may now have several tonnes to sell (Dijkman and Sims 1997).

Oxen are used for three to four months a year, predominantly for soil cultivation tasks such as ploughing, harrowing, ridging and earthing-up. At the end of the cultivation season (or even during it), some farmers may sell one or even both oxen. Prior to the start of the next tillage season, these farmers will purchase new animals of about two years of age at the local market. Farmers use this system to reduce feeding and labour costs connected to maintaining a pair of work oxen. In addition, it also helps to optimise income from the work animal resource if animals are sold when they are in a good condition. Animals can be acquired for anything between 1500 and 2500 Bolivianos (Bs), depending on their size and condition. Working life of oxen varies between one and four years. The training of the new animal is said to be accomplished within a week, during which period the new ox is yoked and worked together with the older, more experienced animal. As not all households own a pair of oxen, animals are commonly hired at Bs 45 per day, or an equivalent payment in kind. There are also three tractors available in the area, but the custom-hire rate of Bs 60 per hour is found to be prohibitively expensive by most farmers.

Transport requirements and possibilities have significantly changed in the past two decades through increases in marketable surpluses and the extension of the all-weather road network. As a result, equids, which previously provided the only source of non-human transport, have been largely replaced by trucks for long journeys. Nevertheless, the animals are still employed to carry agricultural inputs and harvested materials the short distance from the field to the road, especially on fields which cannot be reached by motorised transport. In addition, some farmers have diversified the use of their equids and are using them for low-draft cultivation tasks such as earthing-up in horticultural crops and in threshing harvested crops. During the rainy period, equids also provide the only source of transport capable of passing the river to the main road from Capinota. Contrary to oxen, equids are only replaced as a result of death. Donkeys and horses are bought at one to three years old at nearby livestock markets. Prices range from Bs 200 to 400 and Bs 400 to 1000, for donkeys and horses respectively. Whilst most animals are sold untrained, premiums are paid for trained animals. Working life is reported to vary between five and ten years, which suggests that life span varies from six to 13 years.

Whereas the feeding of small farm animals is the responsibility of the women and children, men are responsible for the feeding of work animals. Alfalfa, which is commonly grown by livestock owning farmers, is fed to the oxen during the working period. For the remainder of the year, however, animals have to content themselves with the available natural pasture or crop residues from cereal and legume crops. Equids are fed throughout the year on natural pasture and crop residues. Work animals are not provided with housing and are normally tethered outside the house at night.

Oxen are used intensively throughout the year for cultivation tasks such as ploughing and harrowing, with the exception of the months of February and March. As almost all farmers own a pair of oxen, renting of animals is not common. Animals are, however, occasionally loaned to other farmers, for which the same favour is returned. Oxen are bought at the livestock market at one or two years of age and range in price from Bs 1500 to 1800. The working life of oxen varies between four to five years, after which time, due to the coarseness of their diet, the animals’ teeth have completely worn down and hence have to be sold. Training of young oxen takes from one to four weeks. During this training period the new animal is yoked and worked together, using the head yoke commonly used in Bolivia, with an older, more experienced animal. Trained oxen are also occasionally bought, but these animals are sold at a premium and their purchase is an exception rather than the rule.

Horses, donkeys, mules and llamas are all employed as transport animals. In the past years, however, there have been marked changes in their use. Equids and llamas used to be the only means of transport available in the area for both people and goods. Hence, they not only formed part of the essential lifeline with the outside world, but they also constituted an integral part of many on and off-farm activities involving the need for transport. Nowadays, all transport of produce, inputs and people to and from the market towns is carried out by truck, bus or pick-up. Nevertheless, animals are still employed for operations such as the transport of firewood, fodder and agricultural produce the short distance from the field to the road. Apart from their use for transport, horses are also used in the threshing of harvested cereals and legumes. In addition, and importantly, these animals also still provide a means of emergency transport when no vehicles are available or when weather conditions have made roads impassable to motorised transport. Pack saddles are not commonly used in the area. In general only a blanket or a fertiliser bag is thrown over the animal’s back for protection before the load is applied. Loads, which are carried over the back rather than over the withers, either hang loose or are secured by a rope passed under the animal’s belly. Although traditionally used as a pack animal and a fibre and meat provider, the transport function of the llama is at present only rarely utilised due to their limited pack capacity (30 kg). Equids are bought at the one of the livestock markets at two to three years of age for prices ranging between Bs 300 to 1200, Bs 300 to 800 and Bs 2000 for horses, donkeys and mules, respectively. Working life of equids is reported to vary between five and ten years, which suggest that life span varies from six to 13 years. Llamas are bought at one to two years of age, for a price that may range between Bs 200 to 250. The life span of llamas is reported to be about 12 to 14 years.

Feeding and management of work animals is the responsibility of the men. Animals feed on natural pasture on fallow or communal lands. Oxen and equids also have access to cereal crop residues and whole forage oats crops during May through to September. Work animals are not provided with housing and, depending on the need for their use, they either spend the night tethered outside the house or on the communal pastures.

As described for the other communities, oxen are used predominantly for primary soil cultivation tasks with the exception of the months of November, February, March and April. Oxen are bought at the livestock markets for Bs 1800 to 2000 at one to two years of age. Normal working life ranges between five and six years, and hence life span varies between six and seven years. However, due to fodder shortages, some farmers have resorted to selling their animals at the end of the cultivation season. Although this allows farmers to capitalise on the investments they have made in terms of feed and labour, it does mean that farmers are continuously working with a relatively inexperienced pair of oxen which may have an influence on the ease of handling the oxen as well as the quality and speed of working.

Training of young animals is carried out in a similar fashion as that described for the other communities. As in Ayopaya, practically all families own a pair of oxen and hence renting arrangements are not common. However, animals can be loaned in return for manual labour or the same service.

As has been mentioned before, transport needs and possibilities have changed significantly in the past four decades. In spite of all these changes, the majority of rural households still own one or two donkeys and horses, which are regularly employed to transport cut fodder to the farm or agricultural inputs and harvested material from the field to the road head (Figure 2). Donkeys and horses are often acquired trained (Bs 100 - 200 for donkeys; Bs 200 - 300 for horses), but even when the animals are purchased untrained, farmers report that they learn much more quick than oxen. Working life and life span in the communities in Tiraque is similar to those reported in the other areas.

The feeding of work animals is based on natural pasture from communal or fallow land. During the drier periods of the year, animals also receive cereal straw and stover which is stored in heaps or sheaves near the homestead (Figure 2).

As was reported for the other communities, work animals are not provided with housing. Although farmers are well aware of the value of organic manure, the type of management and the small number of animals kept makes collection difficult. Sheep, however, are kept in corrals overnight and this manure is commonly collected and used on the cropping land. Farmers also purchase organic manure (chicken or cattle) by truck load in Cochabamba. This type of fertiliser, which is said to be more economical than chemical fertiliser, is mainly used in the cultivation of potatoes, the major cash crop.

Figure 2.  Resources and activities in the Boquerón K’asa community as elaborated by farmers during the PRA

Work animal health

Although severe health problems in work animals are not common in any of the studied communities, the change from the drier to the wetter periods does occasionally bring outbreaks of foot and mouth disease in cattle and angina and colic in equids. Helminths, seasonal mineral deficiencies, foot rot and excessive hoof growth are also reported, but, in concurrence with most of the other health problems mentioned, these could be avoided through an improvement in management practices. Although sporadic vaccination campaigns are carried out by NGOs, veterinary care is virtually non-existent due to a general lack of knowledge of medications and treatments, difficult access to sources and high costs. The few traditional treatments that are practised within the communities are reported to have variable success rates.

A worrying new development, is the importation of draft oxen from the Bolivian tropical lowlands. This could have potentially significant effects on the work animal health situation in the communities through the importation of exotic pathogens and vectors that maybe able to establish themselves in the lower altitude valleys with their relatively mild climate.

Farmer felt constraints

Problem ranking related to the use of work animals was divided into two distinct parts; animals and implements. The results of this exercise are shown in Table 1 and 2, Table 3 and 4 and Table 5 and 6 for the communities in Capinota, Ayopaya and Tiraque, respectively.

Table 1: Problems, causes and solutions connected to the use of work animals (ranked) as identified by farmers in Sarcobamba and Sarco Kucho, Capinota, Bolivia
Problems	Causes	Solutions
Sarcobamba
Lack of veterinary assistance	No information available about agencies /institutes that provide these services	Community training in basic veterinary care; request assistance from NGOs
Diseases	Lack of veterinary services; lack of knowledge about diagnosis and treatments	Request assistance from NGOs
Lack of feed	No knowledge about improved forages; lack of land to grow forage	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this area
Purchase price of animals	Distance of livestock market; cost of transport from market to community	Request permission to organise livestock markets in own locality
Reproduction	Time lapse from calf to working animal	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this area
Sale of animals	Prices controlled by middle men; necessity of sale	Organise livestock market in own locality
Time needed to train animals	No replacement animals raised in the community; lack of knowledge about training techniques	Purchase trained animals; improve training techniques
Sarco Kucho
Time/cost required to train animals	No replacement animals raised in the community; lack of knowledge about training techniques	Raise animals within the community; improve training techniques
Lack of technical and veterinary assistance	No information available about agencies/ institutes that provide these services	Community training in basic veterinary care; request assistance from NGOs
Transport costs of animals from market to farm	Distance from community to livestock market; lack of local transport	Raise own animals; organise livestock markets in own locality
Purchase price of animals	Prices controlled by livestock traders and middle men	Raise own animals; organise livestock markets in own locality
Diseases5*	Management practices; lack of knowledge about diagnosis and treatments	Community training; request assistance from NGOs
Lack of forage5*	No knowledge about improved forages; lack of land to grow forage	Request information from organisations and institutes active in this area
Reproduction5*	Time lapse from calf to working animal; lack of knowledge about genetic improvement	Request information from organisations and institutes active in this area
Sale of animals	Prices controlled by middle men; necessity of sale	Establishment farmer/community marketing organisation
#* = Problems ranked equally

Table 2:  Problem, causes and solutions connected to work animal implements and tools (ranked) as identified by farmers in Sarcobamba and Sarco Kucho, Capinota, Bolivia
Problems	Causes	Solutions
Sarcobamba
Lack of carts and other transport facilities	Carts are not available in the area; high cost of public transport	Request institutes to produce and test a cart prototypes
Lack of harvesting implements	Implements are not available on the market	Request institutes to produce or adapt prototypes
No blacksmith3*	No blacksmith available in the community	Request training for a community blacksmith
Lack of weeding implements3*	Implements are not available on the market	Request institutes to produce or adapt prototypes
No earthing-up implements available	Lack of information about these type of implements	Request CIFEMA for demonstration of available implements
High price of implements6*	Most implements are not available locally	Request producers to market implements with the locality
No metal ploughs available6*	Not marketed within the area; high price of implements	Request CIFEMA for demonstration of available implements
Wooden plough wears out quickly	No hard wood species available for their construction	Introduce metal ploughs
Sarco Kucho
Lack of post-harvest equipment1*	Lack of information about these type of implements and organisations which produce them	Request appropriate institutes to produce or adapt prototype
Lack of carts and other transport facilities1*	Carts are not available in the area	Requests institutes to produce and test a cart prototype
Lack of harvesting implements	Implements are not available on the market; lack of information	Request institutes to produce or adapt prototype
No earthing-up implements available	Lack of information about these type of implements	Request CIFEMA for demonstration of available implements
No blacksmith	No blacksmith available in the community	Request training for a community blacksmith
Lack of sowing/planting implements6*	Lack of information about these type of implements and organisations which produce them	Request appropriate institutes to produce or adapt prototype
Lack of information6*	No extension or diffusion of new information	Request appropriate institutes for demonstrations and information
Lack of ‘improved’ ploughs6*	Not available on local markets	Ask appropriate institutes for demonstrations
High cost of implements	Most implements are not available locally	Request producers to market implements with the locality
Wooden plough wears out quickly	No hard wood species available for their construction	Introduce metal ploughs
#* = Problems ranked equally

Table 3: Problems, causes and solutions connected to the use of work animals (ranked) as identified by farmers in Piusilla and San Isidro, Ayopaya, Bolivia
Problems	Causes	Solutions
Lack of forage; lack of forage management and conservation techniques	Climate; lack of improved forage species; lack of information	Request information from appropriate institutes; initiation of appropriate research
Lack of veterinary services	No veterinary services available in the area	Request appropriate institutes to establish a permanent veterinary post in the region
Purchase price of animals	Lack of market competition; no knowledge about alternative markets	Request permission to organise livestock market in own locality
Lack of knowledge about livestock improvement and management techniques	No information available	Community training in these subjects
Lack of knowledge on training techniques for work animals	No information available	Community training in this subject

Table 4: Problem, causes and solutions connected to work animal implements and tools (ranked) as identified by farmers in Piusilla and San Isidro, Ayopaya, Bolivia
Problems	Causes	Solutions
Lack of balers and choppers for forage conservation	No information available about these type of tools	Request appropriate institutes to produce or adapt prototypes; Request information about the availability of these tools
Lack of spike-toothed or narrow-width harrows	Implement is not available	Request appropriate institutes to produce or adapt prototypes
Lack of harvesting implements	Implements are not available on the market; lack of information	Request CIFEMA for demonstration of available implements
Lack of carts and other transport facilities	Carts are not available in the area	Requests institutes to produce and test a cart prototype
Lack of post-harvest equipment	Lack of information about these type of implements and organisations which produce them	Request appropriate institutes for information/demonstrations and to produce or adapt prototypes
No blacksmith	No blacksmith available in the communities	Request training for a community blacksmith
Lack of weeding and earthing-up equipment for hillside agriculture7*	No information available about these type of implements	Request appropriate institutes to produce or adapt prototypes; Request information about the availability of these implements
Metal plough produced by CIFEMA is too heavy7*	Oxen used in the region are too small for this plough	Request CIFEMA to produce, test and demonstrate lighter plough
Wooden plough wears out quickly7*	No hard wood species available for their construction	Introduce metal ploughs
#* = Problems ranked equally

Table 5: Problems, causes and solutions connected to the use of work animals (ranked) as identified by farmers in Boquerón K’asa and Kolque Joya, Tiraque, Bolivia
Problems	Causes	Solutions
Boquerón K’asa
Lack of improved forage species1*	No information about institutes which work are active in this field	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
Lack of veterinary services1*	No veterinary services available in the area	Request appropriate institutes to establish a permanent veterinary post in the region
Lack of forage management and conservation techniques	No information available about these techniques	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
Diseases	No veterinary services available in the area	Request appropriate institutes to establish a permanent veterinary post in the region
Lack of forage5*	No knowledge about improved forages; lack of land to grow forages	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
Lack of livestock management and improvement techniques5*	No information available about these type of management techniques	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
Kolque Joya
Lack of veterinary services	No veterinary services available in the area	Request appropriate institutes to establish a permanent veterinary post in the region
Lack of stables	No information available about the construction of stables	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
Improvement of available animals	No knowledge about livestock improvement techniques	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
Diseases	No veterinary services available in the area	Request appropriate institutes to establish a permanent veterinary post in the region
Lack of forage and forage conservation techniques	Lack of knowledge about improved forage species and conservation techniques	Request information and assistance from organisations and institutes active in this field
#* = Problems ranked equally

Table 6:  Problems, causes and solutions connected to work animal implements and tools (ranked) as identified by farmers in Boquerón K’asa and Kolque Joya, Tiraque, Bolivia
Problems	Causes	Solutions
Boquerón K’asa
No blacksmith	No blacksmith available in the community	Request training for a community blacksmith
Ploughshares wear out quickly	Inferior material used for their production	Request producers to use better quality materials
Lack of spike-toothed or narrow-width harrows	Implements are not available on the market	Request CIFEMA to produce or adapt prototypes
Lack of ploughshares4*	Infrequent visits of CIFEMA staff	Request CIFEMA staff to visit more frequently
High price of ploughshares4*	No market competition; ploughshares wear out quickly	Request explanation from CIFEMA why they are so expensive
Potato lifter4*	No information on how to use the potato lifter	Request demonstrations by CIFEMA
Reversible plough breaks down often	Inferior material used for their production	Request producers to improve design and to use better quality materials
Lack of specific hillside implement for earthing-up	Implement is not available on the market	Request appropriate institutes to produce or adapt prototypes
Lack of carts and other transport facilities	Carts are not available in the area	Requests institutes to produce and test a cart prototype
Lack of potato graders	No information available about this type of machines	Request demonstrations by CIFEMA
Kolque Joya
No blacksmith	No blacksmith available in the community	Request training for a community blacksmith
Lack of information on the use of available implements	No demonstrations given by manufacturers	Request demonstrations by manufacturers on the use of their implements
High price of ploughshares3*	No market competition; ploughshares wear out quickly	Request explanation from CIFEMA why they are so expensive
Lack of potato selector/grader3*	No information available about this type of machines	Request demonstrations by CIFEMA
Mouldboard of metal plough wears out quickly5*	Inferior material used for their production	Request producers to use better quality materials
Lack of spike-toothed or narrow-width harrows5*	Implements are not available on the market	Request CIFEMA to produce or adapt prototypes
Wooden plough wears out quickly7*	No hard wood species available for their construction	Introduce metal ploughs
Reversible plough breaks down often7*	Inferior material used for their production	Request producers to improve design and to use better quality materials
#* = Problems ranked equally

 
Confirmatory workshop

The presentation of the PRA results during the workshop and the subsequent group analysis of the observed problems, resulted in the construction of the problem tree presented in Figure 3. Following detailed plenary discussions, the project goal and project purpose were specified as ‘Performance of livestock (including work animals) in hillside (crop/livestock or livestock) production systems optimised’ and ‘Optimise the exploitation of animal power in hillside production systems’, respectively.

The outputs required to attain the defined project purpose were elaborated in small groups, after which the various proposals were prioritised during a plenary meeting. Though a rather slow and detailed process, it ensured the full participation and agreement of all stakeholders in the research project. Subsequently, the specific activities needed to obtain the defined project outputs were decided upon during further plenary sessions

Project follow-up

Following the finalisation of the preparatory field work, a project memorandum, based on the PRA findings and the results of the confirmatory workshop, entitled Improved management and use of work animals in the Andean hill farming systems of Bolivia was prepared and submitted for funding to the United Kingdom (UK), Department for International Development (DFID) Livestock Production Programme of the Renewable Natural Resources Research Strategy in November 1996. This proposed three year research project will address the major constraints identified with respect to work animal husbandry (animal health, feeding, diversification of animal use and animal housing), implements (transport, soil cultivation, seeding, weeding and harvesting) and soil and water conservation (equipment and practices linked to fodder production), using participatory methodologies to select and evaluate appropriate technologies. The project will be carried out within the established collaborative framework of CIFEMA, UMSS, NGOs and other DFID funded activities within the area. The project was approved for funding in October 1997 and has been operational since April 1998 (Sims et al 1997).

Figure 3. Problem tree for the use and availability of work animals in the middle Andean hill farming systems of Bolivia as elaborated during the confirmatory workshop

Acknowledgements

The preparatory study on which this paper is based was financed by the UK DFID. We are particularly grateful to our local collaborators from the Universidad Mayor de San Simón and the participating NGOs. In addition, the inhabitants of Sarcobamba, Sarco Kucho, San Isidro, Piusilla, Kolque Joya and Boquerón K’asa are thanked for their willingness to share their knowledge with us. FAO kindly arranged the availability of J. T. Dijkman during part of the study.

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